Pembangan karir Career deveploment Tugas Mata Kuliah :Psikologi Industri dan Organisasi
Nama Dosen :Laila Meiliyandrie I Wardani, PhD
Nama Penyusun : De Ani Cyntya (46113210010)Hasna Zulfa P.H (46113210018)Mala Sari (461132100
Daftar isi
Pengertian Pengembangan Karir Konsep Dasar Karir dan Perencanaan Karir Peran Pengembangan Karir Skema pengembangan karir Tujuan dan Manfaat Pengembangan Karir Definisi Karir Konseling
Pengertian Pengembangan Karir
Pengertian Pengembangan dan Karir Pengembangan (development) yaitu fungsi operasional kedua dari manajemen personalia. Menurut Malayu S.P. Hasibuan (2006:76) pengembangan adalah suatu usaha untuk meningkatkan kemampuan teknis, teoritis, konseptual, dan moral karyawan sesuai dengan kebutuhan pekerjaan atau jabatan melalui pendidikan dan pelatihan.Sedangkan Menurut Henry Simamora (2007 : 412), Karir merupakan urutan aktivitas-aktivitas yang berhubungan dengan pekerjaan dan perilaku, nilai-nilai dan aspirasi seseorang selama rentang hidup orang tersebut.
Pengertian Pengembangan KarirPengembangan karir merupakan proses menyelaraskan rencana karir karyawan dengan kebutuhan perusahaan melalui manajement karir. Dalam masa kerjanya bersama perusahaan, umumnya karyawan ingin mendapatkan peningkatan karir dengan mendapatkan promosi kejabatan dengan tingkatan yang lebih tinggi. Pengembangan karir sangat membantu karyawan dalam menganalisis kemampuan dan minat mereka untuk dapat disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan SDM sejalan dengan pertumbuhan dan perkembangan perusahaan. Pengembangan karir juga merupakan hal yang penting dimana manajemen dapat meningkatkan produktivitas, menungkatkan sikap kerja, menciptakan kepuasan kerja juga mencapai tujuan perusahaan.Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa pengembangan karir merupakan suatu proses dalam peningkatan dan penambahan kemampuan seseorang karyawan yang dilakukan secara formal dan berkelanjutan untuk mencapai sasaran dan tujuan karirnya.
Konsep Dasar Karir dan Perencanaan Karir
Konsep karir adalah konsep yang netral (tidak berkonotasi positif atau negatif). Karena itu karir ada yang baik dan ada pula karir yang buruk. Perencanaan karir seseorang dapat berjalan baik atau buruk sebenarnya ditentukan juga oleh peran dan dukungan dari departemen sumber daya manusia dan manajemen personalia.Menurut Handoko, beberapa tugas seorang manajer personalia adalah sebagai berikut :a. Mengembangkan para karyawan yang dapat dipromosikan.b. Menurunkan perputaran karyawan.c. Mengungkap potensi karyawand. Mendorong pertumbuhan karyawane. Mengurangi penimbunan karyawan walaupun mereka berpotensi tinggi.f. Memuaskan kebutuhan karyawang. Membantu pelaksanaan rencana-rencana kegiatan yang telah disetujui.Perencanaan karir adalah perencanaan yang dilakukan baik oleh individu pegawai maupun oleh organisasi berkenaan dengan karir pegawai, terutama mengenai persiapan yang harus dipenuhi oleh seorang pegawai untuk mencapai tujuan karir tertentu .Sementara itu, beberapa konsep dasar perencanaan karir menurut Umar adalah sebagai berikut :a. Karir sebagai suatu urutan promosi atau transfer ke jabatan yang lebih besar tanggung jawabnya atau ke lokasi-lokasi yang lebih baik selama kehidupan kerja seseorang.b. Karir sebagai petunjuk pekerjaan yang membentuk suatu pola kemajuan yang sistematik dan jelas (membentuk satu jalur karir).c. Karir sebagai sejarah pekerjaan seseorang atau serangkaian posisi yang dipegangnya selama kehidupan kerja.Dalam perencanaan karir ada lima syarat utama yang harus dipenuhi agar proses perencanaan tersebut dapat berjalan dengan baik. Kelima syarat tersebut adalah :a. DialogDalam hal ini pegawai perlu diajak dialog untuk merencanakan karirnya.b. BimbinganOrganisasi harus memberikan bimbingan kepada pegawainya agar bisa meniti karir dengan baik, karena tidak semua pegawai memahami jalur karir.c. Keterlibatan IndividualDalam perencanaan larir harus melibatkan individu pegawai, mereka hendaknya diberi kesempatan untuk berbicara dan memberi masukan. Hal ini sama dengan syarat pertama yakni dialog.d. Umpan BalikProses pemberian umpan balik akan terjadi jika ada dialog.e. Mekanisme perencanaan karirYang dimaksud umpan balik di sini adalah tata cara atau prosedur yang ditetapkan agar proses perencanaan karir dapat dilaksanakan dengan sebaik-baiknya.
Peran Pengembangan Karir
Dalam proses pengembangan karir individu (karyawan) dalam organisasi, ada 3 hubungan saling terkait antara individu, manajer, maupun organisasi. Ketiga-tiganya memiliki peran masing-masing. Gary Dessler menjelaskan peran ketiganya dalam pengembangan karir sebagai berikut:a. Peran Individu - Terimalah tanggung jawab untuk karir Anda sendiri. - Taksirlah minat, keterampilan, dan nilai anda. - Carilah informasi dan rencana karir. - Bangunlah tujuan dan rencana karir. - Manfaatkanlah peluang pengembangan. - Berbicaralah dengan manajer Anda tentang karir Anda. - Ikutilah seluruh rencana karir yang realistic.b. Peran Manajer - Berikanlah umpan balik kinerja yang tepat waktu. - Berikan dukungan dan penilaian pengembangan. - Berpartisipasilah dalam diskusi pengembangan karir. - Dukunglah rencana pengembangan karir.c. Peran Organisasi - Komunikasi misi, kebijakan, dan prosedur. - Berikan peluang pelatihan dan pengembangan. - Berikan informasi karir dan program karir. - Tawarkan satu keanekaragaman pilihan karir. Jadi, pengembangan karir seorang individu sangat terpengaruh dari 3 peran tersebut. Ketiga-tiga harus saling mendukung dalam pengembangan karir. Dalam peran seorang manajer, Gary Dessler menjelaskan lebih lanjut, bahwa ada 4 peran bagi manajer dalam pengembangan karir karyawan , yaitu:
Pelatih,Penilai, Penasehat, Agen Rujukan Mendengar Menjelaskan Menyelidiki Menyatakan keprihatinan Memberikan umpan balik Menjelaskan standar Menjelaskan tanggung jawab jabatan Menghasilkan pilihan Membantu menetapkan tujuan Merekomendasi/ memberi nasehat Menautkan karyawan dengan sumber daya Mengkonsultasi-kan rencana tindakanDari peran tersebut, nampak bahwa seorang manajer sangat berperan dalam pengembangan karir individu di sebuah organisasi. Manajer yang baik seharusnya mendukung penuh kinerja karyawan dan proaktif untuk membantu karyawan dalam mengembangkan karir.
Skema pengembangan karir
Tujuan dan Manfaat Pengembangan Karir
Menurut Fubrin J.Andrew (2005: 77-78), tujuan dan manfaat pengembangan karir adalah :1) Membantu dalam Pencapaian Tujuan Individu dan PerusahaanPengembangan karir membantu pencapaian tujuan perusahaan dan tujuan individu. Seorang karyawan yang sukses dengan prestasi kerja sangat baik kemudian menduduki posisi jabatan yang lebih tinggi, hal ini berarti tujuan perusahaan dan tujuan invidu tercapai.
2) Menunjukan Hubungan Kesejahteraan KaryawanPerusahaan merencanakan karir karyawan dengan meningkatkan kesejahteraannya agar karyawan lebih tinggi loyalitasnya.
3) Membantu Karyawan Menyadari Kemampuan Potensi MerekaPengembangan karir membantu menyadarkan karyawan akan kemampuannya untuk menduduki suatu jabatan tertentu sesuai dengan potensi dan keahliannya.
4) Memperkuat Hubungan antara Karyawan dan PerusahaanPengembangan karir akan memperkuat hubungan dan sikap karyawan terhadap perusahaanya.
5) Membuktikan Tanggung Jawab sosialPengembangan karir merupakan suatu cara menciptakan iklim kerja yang positif dan karyawan menjadi lebih bermental sehat.
6) Membantu memperkuat Pelaksanaan Program-program PerusahaanPengembangan karir akan membantu program-program perusahaan lainnya agar tujuan perusahaan tercapai.
7) Mengurangi Turn Over dan Biaya KepegawaianPengembangan karir dapat menjadikan turn over rendah dan begitu pula biaya kepegawaian menjadi lebih efektif.
8) Mengurangi Keusangan Profesi dan ManajerialPengembangan karir dapat menghindarkan dari keusangan dan kebosanan profesi dan manajerial.
9) Menggiatkan Analisis dari Keseluruhan KaryawanPerencanaan karir dimaksudkan mengintegerasikanperencanaan kerja dan kepegawaian.
10) Menggiatkan Suatu Pemikiran (Pandangan) Jarak Waktu yang PanjangPengembangan karir berhubungan dengan jarak waktu yang pankang. Hal ini karena penempatan suatu posisi jabatan memerlukan persyaratan dan kualifikasi yang sesuai dengan posisinya.
Cara menyusun sistem pengembangaan karirCareer management merupakan bagian penting dari perkembangan SDM dimana hal merupakan upaya untuk mendorong dan memotivasi karyawan agar dapat memiliki jenjang karir yang berkelanjutan.Dengan memiliki rencana akan jenjang karyawan ,seorang karyawan tidak hanya akan lebih termotivasi dalam pekerjaannya,namun juga dapat memiliki tingkat kepuasaan kerja yang lebih tinggi .Manajemen karir merupakan upaya agar karyawan dapat meningkatkan wawasan dan kemampuannya selama masa kerjanya diluar tugas tugas rutinnya,bahkan bila perlu meluas hingga ke pekerjaan lain dengan deskripsi tugas yang berbeda Sayangnya hal ini sering luput dari perhatian karyawan baru yang belum berpengalaman atau baru di terima kerja setelah lulus kuliah ;akhirnya,ketika usia dan waktu kerja mulai bertambah,karyawan tersebut baru menyadari bahwa pekerjaanya tidak membawanya kemana-mana sehingga kepuasaaan dan motivasi kerja menjadi menurun.Dalam hal ini, departemen HR harus membantu karyawan dalam hal career management terutama bagi karyawan yang potensial agar karyawan tersebut bisa berkembang dalam perusahaan.
Mendorong career management di dalam perusahaanDepartemen HR bisa mengusulkan beberapa program untuk mendorong karyawan dalam hal manajemen karir, baik itu usul resmi yang diajukan ke manajemen maupun usul yang bersifat personal yang dapat disampaikan dalam rapat atau pelatihan.Contohnya, departemen HR bisa mengusulkan adanya program yang berhubungan dengan job shadow, dimana karyawan dari satu departemen mendapat pelatihan atau belajar melakukan pekerjaan yang menjadi tugas departemen berbeda; sebagai contoh, bartender di hotel bisa belajar menjadi staf pelayan restoran, sekretaris bisa belajar menjadi asisten admin, supervisor bisa memelajari tugas-tugas quality controller dan sebagainya.Selain menambah wawasan dan keahlian, strategi career management ini juga bisa mendorong karyawan untuk menentukan jenjang karir berdasarkan keahlian yang berbeda dari yang sebelumnya ia tekuni.Departemen HR bisa menjadikan program ini sebagai program rutin atau formal perusahaan yang dilakukan dalam periode khusus dengan persetujuan dewan direksi, dan bila perlu, menunjuk karyawan yang berpengalaman sebagai mentor.Selain itu, departemen HR juga bisa mengusulkan program pelatihan rutin yang berkaitan dengan pengembangan keahlian dan wawasan dimana karyawan dari tiap departemen dapat mengikutinya dengan jadwal yang sudah diatur agar semua departemen dapat memeroleh pelatihan.Cara lain untuk mengembangkan karir karyawan adalah dengan memberi informasi seluas-luasnya kepada tiap karyawan potensial yang serius dalam hal mengembangkan karir di perusahaan.Untuk itu, departemen HR harus memiliki sumber-sumber yang kaya mengenai kesempatan untuk mengembangkan kehalian dan potensi karir seperti jadwal seminar, in-house training dan bahkan program beasiswa untuk karyawan.Jangan lupa untuk menyediakan informasi mengenai jenis keahlian yang dibutuhkan untuk mendaki atau menduduki suatu jenjang karir kepada karyawan potensial yang berminat sehingga karyawan tersebut akan mengetahui hal-hal apa saja yang harus ia kuasai agar mampu melakukan career management sendiri.Sebagai upaya untuk menggali potensi karyawan, department HR bisa mengusulkan pada jajaran direksi dan para manajer agar mencoba menempatkan beberapa karyawan dari suatu departemen ke dalam proyek dari departemen lain yang berbeda untuk melihat kemampuan karyawan dalam menyesuaikan diri dengan kondisi di luar zona nyaman.Manajemen karir yang dilakukan dengan baik bukan hanya akan menguntungkan karyawan, namun juga akan berimbas pada kemajuan perusahaan sekaligus menurunkan tingkat pindah kerja dan ketidakpuasan di kalangan karyawan terutama mereka yang tergolong karyawan potensial.Definisi Karir Konseling
Terdapat konvergensi dalam definisi konseling karir, sebuah proses yang mungkin diawali dengan penerimaan gagasan Super (1980) yang berhubungan dengan sifat interaktif peranan kehidupan. Pada tahun 1991, Linda Brooks dan saya (Brown dan Brooks, 1991) mendefinisikan konseling karir sebagai sebuah proses yang bertujuan untuk memberikan fasilitas pada perkembangan karir dan mungkin melibatkan pemilihan, pemasukan, penyesuaian, atau kemajuan dalam sebuah karir. Kita mendefinisikan permasalahan karir sebagai keragu-raguan yang berkembang karena terlau sedikitnya informasi, keragu-raguan yang tumbuh karena kebimbangan pilihan; ketidakpuasan pada performa pekerjaan; ketak sejenisan antara orang dan peranannya dalam perkerjaan; dan ketak sesuaian antara peranan dan peranan kehidupan lain, seperti keluarga atau waktu luang. The National Career Development Association (NCDA, 1997) menerapkan sebuah definisi yang sama namun lebih sederhana. Organisasi ini mendefinisikan konseling karir sebagai sebuah proses membantu seseorang dalam perkembangan sebuah kehidupan karir dengan sebuah focus pada definisi peranan pekerja dan bagaimana peranan tersebut berinteraksi dengan peranan kehidupan yang lainnya (hal.2). sebagian besar isinya, definisi ini merefleksikan posisi yang diambil oleh Gysber, Heppner, dan Johnston (2003); Admunson (2003); dan para ahli teori postmodern lainnya yang mungkin mengambil permasalahan dengan gagasan yang lengkap dalam definisi karena mereka terlihat menganggap bahwa terdapat batasan yang muncul diantara dan ditengah-tengah peranan kehidupan, sebuah anggapan yang akan menjadi tidak konsisten dengan pandangan perspektif holistic mereka.Seperti yang telah digambarkan pada bab 2 dan 3, mekanisme konseling karir, termasuk pendekatan pada hubungan, penilaian, dll, berbeda-beda berdasarkan pada teori yang diterapkan. Gysber dkk (2003) mengembangkan sebuah taksonomi tugas-tugas yang muncul dalam konseling karir secara simultan dengan proses pengembangan sebuah perserikatan kerja. Tugas ini termasuk mengidentifikasi permasalahan yang disajikan; menyusun hubungan konseling; mengembangkan sebuah ikatan konselor-klien; mengumpukan informasi mengenai klien, termasuk informasi personal dan pengendalian kontekstual; pengaturan tujuan; seleksi intervensi; pengambilan tindakan; dan evaluasi hasil. Seperti yang akan ditunjukan nanti, model konseling multikultural digarisbesarkan pada bab ini menerima sebagian besar gagasan yang berhubungan dengan struktur konseling karir ini dengan perubahan kecil.
Kesimpulan
Dalam sebuah organisasi, seorang karyawan bisa merencanakan pengembangan karirnya. Dalam merencanakan pengembangan karir individu, tak bisa dilepaskan antara peran individu (karyawan), manajer, dan organisasi tersebut. Ketiga-tiganya harus berperan saling mendukung dan mendorong pengembangan karir karyawan. Ada beberapa hal/faktor yang mempengaruhi pengembangan karir individu, tapi bisa disimpulkan jadi dua factor, yakni factor internal (professionalisme karyawan) dan factor internal (lingkungan organisasi, seperti tipe manajemen, manajer, system pengembangan karir di organisasi, dan lain-lain).Pengembangan karir merupakan salah satu tugas manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia (SDM). Setiap manajer harus memiliki sistem manajerial dalam mengelola karyawan, salah satunya sistem pengembangan karir karyawan . Semakin bagus sistem pengembangan karir karyawan di dalam organisasi, semakin mudah bagi karyawan untuk merencanakan pengembangan karirnya.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Hastho Joko Nur Utomo dan Meilan Sugiarto, Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia (Yogyakarta : Ardana Media. 2007).Gary Dessler, Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia, (terj.) oleh. Benyamin Molan, (Jakarta: Prenhallindo, 1998).Triton P.B., Paradigma Baru Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia (Yogyakarta : Tugu. 2005)Al Ariss, A. (2010), "Modes of engagement: migration, self-initiated expatriation andcareer development",Career DevelopmentInternational, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 338-58.Larsen, H.H. and Ellehave, C.F. (2000), "Careersin organizations", in Brewster, C. and Larsen, H.H. (Eds), Human Resource Management in Northern Europe. Trends, Dilemmas and Strategy, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 89-124.
Jurnal 1 Career development(CD) has long been cited as a core area associated with human resourcedevelopment(HRD). Despite this explicit connection, few publications focusing on CD are available in general HRD-related literature. This review outlines selected theories, examines selected definitions of CD, and analyzes the aims ofcareer developmentin relation to HRD. The authors argue that there is much more opportunity to explore CD as a necessary component of HRD than has been undertaken to date. Furthermore, they make recommendations for multilevel integration and related theory-building approaches that may enhance the role of CD in HRD.Keywords:career development; human resourcedevelopment; trainingWhen it comes tocareer development(CD) perspectives in the context of human resourcedevelopment(HRD) literature, HRD scholars and practitioners appear to have paid little attention to the importance of CD. At present, there is a broad array of theory, practice, and knowledge-based perspectives that inform HRD (Desimone, Werner, & Harris, 2002; McGoldrick, Stewart, & Watson, 2002; Swanson & Holton, 2001; Woodall, 2001). These theoretical influences have been articulated in various HRD literature, related texts, and ongoing discussions regarding definitions and foundations of HRD. Furthermore, exploration anddevelopmentof HRD-related theory appears to be increasing-particularly within the Academy of Human ResourceDevelopment(AHRD) and since the launch of Human ResourceDevelopmentReview (Torraco, 2004). Although little research has been published to support including CD in HRD, a central element in HRD definitional and theoretical discussions is the inclusion of CD.Many HRD scholars and practitioners are familiar with McLagan's (1983) definition of HRD as the "integrated use of training anddevelopment,career development, and organizationdevelopmentto improve individual and organizational performance" (p. 7). Given this and related discussions, practitioners, scholars, and students may be led to believe that CD is a pillar or a load-bearing wall for HRD. Load-bearing walls in buildings provide support for the gravitational force exerted on a structure (Encarta Dictionary, 2005a). CD is often presented as providing major structural support for the practice and scholarly endeavors associated with HRD. Despite assertions that CD is a central element of HRD (e.g., McLagan, 1989; Swanson & Holton, 2001; Weinberger, 1998), support for these claims are difficult to locate in the general HRD literature. In fact, CD appears to be a relatively minor consideration in HRD research, and rarely the explicit focus of AHRD literature.Our recent exploration of AHRD publications identified fewer than 40 total articles to date in the Conference Proceedings and only three in the four AHRD-refereed journals (Advances in Developing Human Resources, Human ResourceDevelopmentInternational, Human ResourceDevelopmentQuarterly, and Human ResourceDevelopmentReview) from 1996 to 2005 that specifically discuss CD. This count is compared (using the same search parameters) to nearly 300 references to training or training anddevelopment(another identified foundational element of HRD) in AHRD publications overall and better than 50 times the number of CD articles in AHRD's refereed journals. CD does not appear to be overtly supporting the HRD structure or, to complete the analogy, may be more "window dressing"-defined as a "deceptively appealing presentation of something"-than part of the foundation or structure of the field (Encarta Dictionary, 2005b).Despite this relative lack of attention to CD, examination of CD definitions is important to HRD scholars or professionals interested in the consideration of multiple levels of analysis (Garavan, McGuire, & O'Donnell, 2004) such as the meaningful integration of systems and organization-leveldevelopmentwith individualdevelopmentin the workplace. In addition, CD is relevant to HRD practice (McDonald & Hite, 2005; McLagan, 1989; Weinberger, 1998) and has a relevant theory base. Although it is difficult to fully ascertain why exploration of CD has been fairly limited in HRD and AHRD literature, an observation recently underscored by McDonald and Hite (2005), a few reasons include1. the perceived high costs of individually oriented HRD efforts in the workplace2. the existence of often-limited views of CD as acareercounselor-client relationship only3. the creation of employee assistance programs and other outsourced or external elements that remove traditional CD practice from the context of the organization making individuals responsible for their owndevelopment4. the presentation of systems and organization-level learning and performance as superordinate, overriding concerns for individual level issues in the general HRD literature5. a lack of foundational and theoretical literature elaborating on the often cited relationship between CD and HRD6. the use of different terminology across international contexts7. the dominance of a constructivist perspective that questions the use of acontexual or predetermined frameworks and, therefore, rejects efforts to formulate general definitions or explorations associated with HRD and CD.We agree with the statement by Swanson and Holton (2001) that "career developmentis being overlooked as a contributor to HRD" (p. 312), and by McDonald and Hite (2005) that "HRD can renew its commitment tocareer developmentas one of its fundamental functions" (p. 437).Several HRD scholars have engaged in exploration of HRD-related definitions and theory as attempts to clarify issues, identify necessary outcomes, explore related literature, and stimulate related research, applications, and discussions (Egan, 2002; Weinberger, 1998; Woodall, 2001). This article has a similar aim. Recognizing that there are many ways to approach explorations of definitions and related theories, we believe, like McDonald and Hite (2005), that failure to engage more specifically in CD-related discussion in general HRD will be a disservice to the field and a contradiction to the explicit linkages between CD and HRD as supported in foundational HRD literature.Purpose and Research QuestionsThe purpose of this inquiry is threefold: (a) to review existing CD theories, (b) to examine definitions of CD and their concomitant dependent variables (DVs), and (c) to apply the outcomes of (a) and (b) to recommendations for future theory-building research connecting CD and HRD. To this end four research questions are used to guide and inform the inquiry, namely:Research Question 1: Based on available resources, what are definitions of CD?Research Question 2: Based on identified CD definitions, what are related DVs of CD?Research Question 3: What patterns exist among identified definitions and DVs?Research Question 4: What is the potential for CD theory and definitions to inform or be integrated into HRD theory building?Our desire is that this elaboration of theories and definitions will stimulate discussion, aid in thedevelopmentof new insights, demonstrate connections between CD and HRD, and advance the possibility for more elaboration and progress in thedevelopmentof CD-related definitions, theory building, research, and exploration in the context of HRD. In addition, our choice to explore DVs, or outcomes, is based on our position that shared aims between CD and HRD should be the starting point for exploring the interactions between them. According to Swanson (1996), "The dependent variable-the outcome-is the ultimate reason for human resourcedevelopment" (p. 204). Swanson, therefore, stated, "HRD must get serious about the dependent variable. To accomplish this, HRD scholars must be willing to learn more about the dependent variable" (p. 206).LimitationsIt is important to note that this examination of definitions and dependent variables has several limitations. First, we used AHRD publications to support our argument that CD is not well represented in HRD literature. We were, however, unable to find articles in other journals that contradicted our position. We refute but are somewhat vulnerable to the contention that all CD-specific work is inherently HRD even if HRD is never discussed. In addition, our identification of core CD theories, definitions, and dependent variables is limited to our methods for doing so.Overview of Definitions, Dependent Variables, and Theory BuildingTheory building is often defined as a "process for modeling real-world phenomena" (Torraco, 1997, p. 126). The use of definitions in the process of modeling elements of the real world is essential to the theory-building process (Dubin, 1969). Without a clear understanding of the parameters and applied problems associated with a phenomenon, theory cannot be adequately constructed (Torraco, 1997). Nor can "coherent descriptions, explanations, and representations of observed or experienced phenomena [be] . . . generated, verified, and refined" (Lynham, 2000, p. 161). According to Dubin (1969) theory building should be aimed toward practical outcomes associated with explanation and prediction along with an intellectual interest in the characteristics and nature of the phenomenon about which a theory is formulated. In addition, Dubin's theory-then-research theory-building method requires, as the very first step, that the units or concepts associated with theory under construction be clarified or defined. Without clear definition, the goals of theory building in HRD-(a) to advance professionalism and maturity in the field, (b) to help dissolve tension between HRD theory and practice, and (c) to develop multiple approaches to HRD theory building and practice (Lynham, 2000)-cannot be accomplished. Dubin's insight contradicts Holton's (2002) expressed concern that ongoing exploration of HRD related definitions amounts to "scholarly 'navel examination'" (p. 275) and further exploration may not help develop human resources or organizations. Although we share Holton's concern that discussion of nuanced issues, such as HRD-related definitions, can seem cumbersome, we also believe that the refinement of such discussions serve to support the goals of theory building in HRD.Although those studying applied fields such as HRD and CD must be concerned with practice (McLagan, 1989), this concern is insufficient for sound theory building. Theorists, researchers, and practitioners alike must also concern themselves with outcomes, thus ensuring that the practice of HRD has clear aims and identifiable results (McLagan, 1989; Swanson, 1996)-what Van de Ven (1989) and Marsick (1990) term rigor and relevance. In an effort to inform the potential for interaction between CD and HRD at the theoretical level, we identify definitions, clarify outcomes, associate selected CD theories, and make suggestions for further progress associated with such theory building. Theory building in applied fields and practice can and should be linked. Definitions play a key role in theory building for the purposes of informing professionalism and practice-related outcomes (or DVs). In the following sections, we review current foundational CD theories (first of a general and then a specific nature), present CD definitions and their corresponding outcome and/or dependent variables, discuss briefly two thematic categories of CD DVs (individual, and organizational and social), provide an integration of CD and HRD perspectives, consider the interdependence among CD, HRD, and multilevel applied theory building, and finally, draw some conclusions on the topic of CD as a necessary load-bearing wall of HRD theory and practice.Review of CoreCareer DevelopmentTheoriesAccording to Hall (1987) acareercan be defined as "the sequence of individually perceived work-related experiences and attitudes that occur over the span of a person's work life" (p. 1). CD has been defined by numerous scholars and supported by a number of theories. As identified above, theory, theorydevelopment, and definitions have important interrelationships. Although there may be no perfect way to organize CD theories, available literature often describes CD theories as (a) structural or (b) developmental (Osipow, 1983). Structural theories are focused on occupational tasks and individual attributes. Developmental theories, on the other hand, focus on lifelong learning and humandevelopment. Chen (2003) divided CD theories into objectivist-positivistic and constructivist approaches. Because precise categorization of CD theories into these dualistic domains is cumbersome, we have divided 19 core CD theories into two core categories (general and specific).The first category deals with general CD theories (see Table 1) that include broad social science theories and perspectives framed in CD-related contexts. The second category relates CD-specific theories that have been most often devised by individual CD scholars. Identification of these two categories and related theories involved not only the authors but also input from five advanced scholars, each with 15 or more years of experience as university professors specializing in CD. These experts were asked to review a list of CD theories frequently cited in the literature to make recommendations or additions as core theories in CD. As a result of this expert feedback, several theories were added to those initially identified.The theories listed in Table 1 are limited to those identified by the researchers and experts as foundational or core theories associated with CD. According to Osipow (1983, 1990), even though CD theories may be clustered into groups, they are intertwined and may draw from one another in actual practice and in empirical research. In addition, interrelationships exist between CD theories and CD definitions. In fact, as is discussed below, there has been a call for a convergence of CD theories into a more comprehensive theoretical framework (Chen, 2003; Osipow, 1983; Zunker, 2002). Nonetheless, each theory identified also has distinguishing features.Method for Exploring CD DefinitionsA review of literature, analysis, and synthesis was utilized to answer the research questions forwarded in the current study. Electronic databases were used in the literature search aimed at identifying a maximum number of CD definitions. Databases accessed included ABI Inform, ERIC, and PsychInfo. Electronic journals were accessed through Interscience/Wiley, Catchword, JSTOR, and ScienceDirect. In an effort to focus our search, articles were only selected if published after 1979. In the case where sources identified cited CD definitions published prior to 1980, original sources were accessed. Searches for books associated with the subject of this article were utilized using an internal electronic search engine at a major university in the central United States and online book purchasing catalogs www.amazon.com and www.powellsbooks.com. Books were considered for use only when a majority of references were from refereed journals and scholarly works. The initial search was conducted using the termcareer developmentand yielded more than 1,500 sources. In an effort to reduce the number of sources to only scholarly works, those sources not containing references were eliminated as were those from nonrefereed articles or books that did not use scholarly references. The remaining articles and books were reduced to fewer than 400 by searching the text of each publication to determine whether an explicit definition of CD was provided. The process identified above yielded 112 resources providing explicit definitions of CD. One limitation of the current study is that the vast majority of these sources originated from the United States. After eliminating redundant definitions the search yielded 30 distinct definitions of CD. A small number of the definitions were found to have modifiers (e.g., organizational CD); such modifiers are noted in the descriptions listed in Table 2.It is important to note that we recognize that this exploration can be challenging for the following reasons: (a) CD literature and HRD-related literature are sometimes difficult to define; (b) given the relatively long history of CD, providing a comprehensive list of CD definitions and theories is problematic; (c) HRD-related literature may have CD-related implications without explicit acknowledgment; and (d) as presented by Lee (2001), there may be resistance to the notion of defining HRD or its domains all together.Although CD literature and some literature in psychology and management may explore related issues, few explore theory building explicitly. Our desire is to explore CD definitions and stimulate integration and innovation within HRD theory-building literature and within other HRD and AHRD journals.Career DevelopmentDefinitions and Dependent VariablesThe definitions of CD are featured in Table 2. Authors, year published, and DVs were identified and reviewed by CD experts. Then, the DVs were analyzed for themes and categorized by outcomes as described in the next section.DV CategoriesAlthough CD is primarily focused on the individual and HRD tends toward a focus on larger human systems, it is less clear, and at best understated, whether HRD and CD share similar aims. Theory and theory building are commonly utilized to describe and generalize about a phenomenon (Dubin, 1969). Therefore, theory, in whole or part, is connected to prediction and "the predictions derived from them [theories] are the grounds on which modern man [or woman] is increasingly ordering his [or her] relationships with the environing universe" (Dubin, 1969, p. 3). Understanding the intended outcomes of CD may assist in clarifying the descriptive and predictive connections we often seek between HRD-related activity and outcomes. As a field of practice, and to work responsibly with organizational stakeholders (Swanson, 1996), HRD professionals and scholars must have something to say about theoretical and practice-based results. The starting point for theory building between HRD and CD should be at the point of mutual interest in the form of shared aims toward outcomes.All of the definitions above contained a dependent or outcome variable. In several cases, the definitions included more than one DV. The identification of several DVs within the definitions presented by some authors suggests the broad views that some CD theorists have regarding the relevance and potential for multiple impacts of CD theory and practice. Ninety-three DVs were identified from the 30 definitions featured in Table 2. Table 3,Career DevelopmentDependent Variable Categories, identifies the DV categories developed from the DVs listed in Table 2. The contents of Tables 2 and 3 were reviewed by the experts and the authors. Refinements were made based on the feedback provided.The individual outcomes listed in Table 3 appear to have close similarities to the trait-factor, self-concept, and personality theories that, according to Osipow (1983, 1990), are some of the most enduring theories in CD.Integrating CD and HRD PerspectivesAlthough McLagan (1989) defined CD as an area of practice for HRD, the focus on CD in the HRD literature rarely has gone beyond brief mention. According to Swanson and Holton (2001), the focus of HRD-related literature coalesced around training anddevelopment(T&D) and organizationdevelopment(OD) as primary areas of emphasis. Perhaps the reason for the decline, or ongoing absence, of CD as a focus of HRD has been the perceived hierarchy suggested in the McLagan definition whereby OD is framed as superordinate to T&D, and CD subordinate to T&D. As the exploration of DVs has demonstrated, CD can be associated with organization-level interests and outcomes. CD may occur in many contexts yielding a variety of results.In addition to being viewed as a relatively minor player in HRD, CD has often been framed exclusively as a one-on-one relationship between an employee and a manager or HRD practitioner. Traditional CD texts were often written for professionals incareerplacement or professionals working with adults in transition. These early writings may have biased HRD researchers and practitioners to conceptualize CD through a programmatic or counseling frame. CD, however, need not occur exclusively in the context of individually oriented activities (Zunker, 2002). Fundamental activities such as challenging work assignments and increased responsibility may contribute to CD, as might participation in systemwide HRD efforts. Research on other HRD-related activities, such as mentoring, identifies CD-related impacts such as increased job satisfaction, increasedcareercommitment, and higher retention levels (Egan & Rosser, 2005).CD has fallen off in importance in HRD because of the failure to ask questions, ascertain outcomes, and make links between HRD- and CD-related theories, research, and practice. Recent studies published in HRD journals regarding training results, relationships between training activities, theory building in HRD, and the integration of learning and work could be more impactful if they included CD perspectives. Unfortunately, CD theories and concepts are included infrequently, thus, justifying the question, "Career development-Is it a loadbearing wall or just window dressing?"The current study also provides possibilities for connections and integration between theories of CD and HRD. Trait-factor theories could be included in explorations of employee preferences and competencies, and HRD practices. Behavioral theories present overlapping assumptions common to those found in HRD, such as learning theory, and the formulation of practice approaches. In addition, social systems theories support the examination of external or environmental factors associated with learning,development, and performance. HRD studies that include CD perspectives may provide opportunities for integrative research that examine systems and multilevel dimensions of learning and performance.CD, HRD, and Multilevel Theory BuildingAs described above, dependent or outcome variables associated with CD can be categorized into those that focus on individual outcomes or organizational and societal outcomes. Despite the different outcomes identified, in general, CD theories have been perceived to maintain a focus on the individual (Upton, 2006). It has been argued that because of the frequent focus on the individual, CD perspectives are rarely included in HRD literature (Conlon, 2003). Although theory building in HRD has grown in recent years (as exemplified by Yang, 2003, and explored by Torraco, 2004) and has stretched our field to consider new ways of framing HRD research and practice, most HRD theory building has been conducted and framed at a single level-often the group or organization level (Swanson & Holton, 2001). Turnbull (2002) stated, "Theory is not static. It is constantly evolving, and as our organizations change in response to their external environments, so the theories on which we build our disciplines need to keep pace" (p. 219). The theoretical frames and the DV categories for CD identified in this article reiterate that CD cannot be viewed solely as an individual or organizational responsibility. In actuality, CD is a multilevel phenomenon. This multilevel interchange occurring in practice can be represented in CD theory. Conversely, new multilevel theory building should guide more effective CD practice.A link between individual and organizational orientations of CD may be better explored through multilevel theory building. Klein, Tosi, and Cannella (1999) pointed out thatmultilevel theories span the levels of organizational behavior and performance, typically describing some combination of individuals, corporations, and industries. Multilevel theories attempt to bridge the micro-macro divide, integrating the micro domain's focus on individuals . . . with the macro domain's focus on organizations, environment, and strategy, (p. 243)The current study and the work by Conlon (2003) expose that today's dynamic workplace has not necessarily been operationalized appropriately by CD theories that focus exclusively at the level of the individual because the organization does have a rational interest in CD. According to Klein et al. (1999),The result [of multilevel theory building] is a deeper, richer portrait of organizational life-one that acknowledges the influence of the organizational context on individuals' actions and perceptions and the influence of individuals' actions and perceptions on the organizational context. . . . Multilevel theories connect the dots, making explicit the links between constructs previously unlinked within the organizational literature, (p. 243)Multilevel theory building may very well be the key to bridging predominantly individually oriented CD theories with HRD theory-building efforts. It may also assist in addressing the frequent call for convergence of existing CD theories (Chen, 2003; Osipow, 1983; Zunker, 2002).Although little has been presented in the HRD literature regarding multilevel theory building, there has been an ongoing discussion regarding systems theory and multilevel approaches in HRD (Caravan et al., 2004). Systems theory emphasizes interactions between multiple levels and, in principle, supports the multilevel theory-building concept. A systems approach not only supports the idea that CD be examined in the context of HRD but also makes the inclusion of CD essential. By definition, open systems include all units or elements bound within or connected to that system (Jacobs, 1988). If we are to explore and theorize about HRD at the organizational systems level, we must include a developmental framework at the individual level that embraces the existing CD theories and extends HRD theory building to embrace multiple levels. We have attempted to make a contribution to beginning that process.There are many options for future research associated with CD in the context of HRD. Future multilevel theory-building research will have to engage in questions of alignment between issues at the individual level often connected with CD and HRD at the systems level. A key consideration for future multilevel theory building in HRD will be within-unit agreement, or homogeneity within the unit(s) of interest, and disagreement, or heterogeneity, within the unit(s) of interest (Klein et al., 1999). Within-unit agreement is a necessary component to multilevel theory building because there should be alignment between a given construct as a unit associated with, in this case, the individual or CD level and the system or HRD level. Too much variability or heterogeneity between the levels or units will diminish the likelihood for thedevelopmentof a cohesive multilevel theory.The DV themes identified (Table 3) suggest that there are significant opportunities for thedevelopmentof multilevel HRD theories at the individual and organizational level. "Perhaps the most common form-and a very useful one-is the cross-level model in which higher-level variables are hypothesized to moderate the relationship between two or more lower-level variables" (Klein et al., 1999, p. 246). Using the DVs identified in the current study, interactions between organization-level efforts and employee achievement of selfsatisfaction,careerdecisions,careerobjectives,developmentof a self-concept, and individual alignment with organizational needs could be examined. There has been some exploration of these interactions in HRD-related literature; however, few have led to explicitdevelopmentof multilevel theories. Although early work in thedevelopmentof multilevel theories associated with HRD is promising, there are many opportunities to expand our understanding of the intersection between higher and lower level units or variables, such as theories of organizational leadership examining large system and the individual impact within organizations (Waldman & Yammarino, 1999).Osipow ( 1990) suggested the possibilities for convergence between CD theories through an exploration of interactions between them. The notion of CD theory convergence involves the combining of key elements of more than one existing theory into a single theory that could provide more explanatory power or relevance. Krumboltz (1994) utilized the analogy of differently scaled maps to describe the diversity of approaches between CD theories. Some maps focus on topography, highways, or even climate at varying levels of detail and emphasis. Osipow (1990) and Chen (2003) suggested that convergence of existing CD theories could lead to new theories. Logically extended, such an effort could create theories, as suggested by Krumbotz, which are the product of more than one scale or level. Exploring such suggestions regarding the integration of CD theories may be supported using multilevel theory building. Needless to say, there is much work needed to elaborate on the theory convergence suggested by Osipow and Chen; however, the general concept appears to be promising for CD and HRD.SummaryA number of aforementioned HRD scholars have explored HRD-related definitions. We examined HRD and related definitions available in the HRD literature for the purposes of clarification and theory building. Nineteen CD theories, 30 CD definitions, 93 DVs, and 10 DV categories and their associated theories were identified. Connections between HRD and CD and the potential for theory building approaches were examined.Exploration of CD has not occurred in the HRD literature with sufficient frequency, specificity, or clarity. Through general discussions, (e.g., affirmation of the McLagan HR Wheel) many in the HRD community imply the inclusion of CD in HRD. Despite this, CD is not being addressed in specific terms that embrace historical literature associated with CD, nor are we examining the extent to which CD reflects the "alignment of individualcareerplanning and organizationalcareermanagement processes to achieve an optimal match of individual and organizational needs" (McLagan, 1989, p. 6).HRD can be viewed as emerging from multiple pathways and dimensions. Further connections between CD theory and literature in HRD will enhance HRD research and practice. With its rich history and theoretical frameworks, CD is important to HRD and deserves more attention in HRD literature.
Jurnal 2 Career developmentfor skilled migrants in EuropeEdited by Akram Al Ariss, Iris Koall, Mustafa Ozbilgin and Vesa SuutariIntroductionWithincareerliterature, different metaphors provide a more nuanced view of howcareercan be perceived and interpreted in and from different contexts.Careermetaphors ([4] Baruch 2004; [20], [21], [22] Inkson, 2004, 2006, 2007) acknowledge the complexity inherent incareerstudies and research, in that different lenses can be used through whichcareerscholars can explorecareers. This paper considers the contemporary metaphors used incareerliterature pertaining tocareer developmentin an international context in particular. It reviews those metaphors in the context of an empirical study conducted by the author with a sample of skilled self-initiated expatriates (SEs) ([34] Suutari and Brewster, 2000). This paper argues that a new metaphor is required to encompass the overlapping elements influencingcareeropportunities and choices; elements concerning the individual him/her-self (competencies, qualifications, ambition), his/her relationships and roles prioritization at different points of time, work opportunities and the economic employment situation in a particular country. The metaphor ofcareer"rivers" to describe thecareer developmentof the sample in the study is put forth as a more succinct description of their experiences.The aim of this paper is threefold. First, to provide an overview of commonly usedcareermetaphors used in the context of internationalcareer development. The second aim is to propose a new metaphor, which the author feels better represents the actualcareersof SEs. The final aim of the paper is to consider the implications of the new metaphor on futurecareerresearch and practice through the presentation of a framework ofcareerinfluences/influencers, underlining the need for more holisticcareerresearch and theorydevelopment.In the first section of this paper,careermetaphors are introduced, with a brief overview of those considered to be the primary metaphors ([20], [22] Inkson, 2004, 2007). Next, thecareermetaphors used incareer developmentin an international context are reviewed, includingcareeras a "path" (e.g. [8] Cappellen and Janssens, 2005), the "boundaryless"career([3] Arthur and Rousseau, 1996), the "protean"career([18] Hall, 1996) andcareer"capital" ([14] DeFillippi and Arthur, 1996). Then, the research approach adopted for the study is presented, along with the findings of relevance to this paper. Finally, the paper makes suggestions for further research through a proposed framework ofcareerinfluences/influencers, and presents the implications of the study forcareertheorydevelopmentand practice.Careermetaphors[20], [22] Inkson (2004, 2007) considers nine primarycareermetaphors in his conceptual analysis of many of thecareermetaphors in existence. Each of those nine is outlined briefly in this section. The first of these is the "legacy metaphor" or "careeras inheritance," which [20], [22] Inkson (2004, 2007) describes ascareersinfluenced by "habitus" or the "fields" within which one has developed and socialized ([6] Bourdieu, 1983). The common "habitus" and "fields" that individuals may share tend to self-perpetuate, thereby helping to socialize individuals into specific structures.The secondcareermetaphor Inkson calls the "craft" metaphor or "careeras construction" ([20] Inkson, 2004), but later ([22] Inkson, 2007) re-names as "actions," where individual agency incareerconstruction anddevelopmentis the focus. The "proteancareer" ([18] Hall, 1996) is included under this primary metaphor. The proteancareeris acareer, which the individual manages and is control of (not the organization). Third is the "season" metaphor or "careeras cycle," which relatescareerto life cycle and changing priorities over the course of one's life. Next (fourth) is the "matching" metaphor or "careeras fit," which is aligned with [25] Parson's (1909) and [19] Holland's (1992) work-worker fit aspects ofcareersas occupations. The fifth metaphor is the "path" metaphor, or the "careeras journey," which is the most commoncareermetaphor ([20] Inkson, 2004, p. 103). [30] Schein's (1990)careeranchors (occupational self-concept) and [3] Arthur and Rousseau's (1996) boundarylesscareerconcepts fit under this metaphor umbrella, which focusses on the movement within acareer, organizationally and geographically.The sixth metaphor Inkson classifies as the "network" metaphor, withcareersperceived as encounters and relationships (social and political). Seventh is the "theater" metaphor, wherecareers"can be construed as performances, andcareerself-management as a performing art" ([20] Inkson, 2004, p. 111). "Economic" is the eight metaphor, withcareerviewed as a "resource" to fulfill organizational goals as in the resource-based view of the firm. Finally, the ninth metaphor is "narrative" or "careeras story," where the individual's telling of his/hercareerstory/ies is borne in mind and its subjectivity recognized. The research undertaken and shared in this paper involved a detailed analysis of a collection ofcareernarratives from SEs. Therefore the narrative metaphor is of underlying relevance in this paper, underlining the individuality and subjectivity of the respondents in theircareer developmentnarratives.[20] Inkson (2004, p. 100) suggests that "Other metaphors may further help us to understand both generic and individualcareers." It is this contribution to facilitating understanding ofcareersthat prompted the author of this paper to consider thecareermetaphors most commonly associated with internationalcareers, particularly with the internationalcareer developmentof SEs. Given the breadth of primary metaphors and their sub-components as categorized by [20], [22] Inkson (2004, 2007) and outlined briefly above, space restrictions do not permit a detailed analysis of each in conjunction with the empirical research sample in this paper. However, [22] Inkson (2007) himself files internationalcareersunder thecareer"journey" or "path" metaphor. Other metaphors such as "protean" (under the "actions" primarycareermetaphor) and "capital" (under the "resource" primarycareermetaphor) are also included in the further analysis due to contemporary publications on these in relation to internationalcareers.Internationalcareersandcareer developmentmetaphorsInternational human resource management literature has traditionally focussed on the organization-assigned expatriate (e.g. [5] Bonacheet al., 2010), possibly due to the organization's position in controlling or co-controlling the expatriate's international move and therefore the organization's/managerialist interest in this dimension. The organization-assigned expatriate moves for a temporary duration, with the support of his/her employing organization, to a host country. This move is mooted as an internationalcareer"path" ([8] Cappellen and Janssens, 2005; [15] Dickmann and Harris, 2005), where the path may lead in different directions both within the parent organization and externally.Within thecareer"journey" or "path" metaphor, the boundarylesscareermetaphor ([3] Arthur and Rousseau, 1996) reflects the changing relationship between individuals and their employers. The premise behind the boundarylesscareeris that individuals are now more open to moving across organization departments, geographies and to external organizations. The boundarylesscareerhas been a particularly useful concept with regards to international assignees, where assignees may choose to move inter-organizationally after an international assignment (e.g. [32] Stahlet al., 2002).Recent papers have called for a more inclusive study ofcareer developmentto include micro-, meso- and macro-perspectives in order to better explain thecareer developmentchallenges faced by non-nationals internationally ([1] Al Ariss, 2010; [2] Al Ariss and Ozbilgin, 2010; [8] Cappellen and Janssens, 2005). This paper addresses the context within which individualcareer developmentoptions emerge, thereby including meso- and macro-factors.In the last decade, an increasing volume of research has been conducted on non-traditional expatriates. This has been in response to calls for pluralism in international human resource management and in the internationalcareerdiscipline to include international assignee types other than the traditional organizationally assigned expatriate ([31] Scullion and Paauwe, 2004; [7] Brewster and Suutari, 2005; [13] de Cieriet al., 2007). This paper, in common with recent research and publications (e.g. [1] Al Ariss, 2010; [9] Cerdin and Le Pargneux, 2010; [27] Richardson, 2009), posits the importance of research on SEs. They are a burgeoning category of international assignees, about whom a paucity of information exists, perhaps due to the very different contexts (national, political) from which they come and move to, thereby rendering their scrutiny complex and emic ([28] Richardson, 2010, p. 146).The "protean"careermetaphor ("actions" as the primary metaphor category under which [22] Inkson, 2007 files the "protean" metaphor) has been discussed with regards to SEs (also termed self-initiated (international) assignees (SAs)) ([11] Crowley-Henry, 2007; [12] Crowley-Henry and Weir, 2007). The need for SEs to "morph" into differentcareerpaths due to macro-, meso- and micro-conditions that they face at different points in time, suggests the individual controls his/hercareer(micro-context). However, it is stressed thatcareersdo not develop in a vacuum but under the constraints and/or supports from employers (meso-context) and the formal and informal labor policies and practices of the host country (macro-context).Thecareercapital metaphor (classified under Inkson's primary "resource" metaphor) developed from [14] DeFillippi and Arthur (1996). They breakcareercapital into three components: knowing why, knowing how and knowing whom. "Knowing why" relates to the individual's values and motivations; "knowing how" to the individual's skills and competences in the job; and "knowing whom" to the contacts an individual has which aid his/hercareer development. In the internationalcareercontext, research has shown how an international work experience impacts on an individual'scareercapital ([15] Dickmann and Harris, 2005; [16] Dickmann and Doherty, 2008; [23] Jokinenet al., 2008). "Knowing why" findings show that an international assignment "markedly influenced their [assigned expatriates and self-initiated expatriates] self-awareness on personal values, work interests and capabilities" ([23] Jokinenet al., 2008, p. 989). "Knowing how" is improved as "individuals found new insights and preferences during their international stays" ([16] Dickmann and Doherty, 2008, p. 155). While "knowing whom" was found to be the most important component ofcareercapital to international assignees, with one "key finding [...] that most expatriate interviewees realized that their social capital had suffered as a result of working abroad" ([15] Dickmann and Harris, 2005, p. 404).This section has introduced the primarycareermetaphors and discussed thosecareermetaphors most applicable in the context of to internationalcareers(expatriates and SA/SEs). The next section introduces the research approach.Research approachThe research shared in this paper was conducted in the region of Sophia Antipolis (Science and Technology Park in the south of France), where 37 SEs were interviewed between mid-2002 and mid-2005. Focussing on a particular region in the south of France renders the study a geographical case. A limitation of all case studies ([33] Stake, 1994) is in the ability to generalize the findings to other locations. However, the aim of the research in this instance was to uncover the patterns of influences impacting upon thecareer developmentof the sample as interpreted by the SEs themselves in their narratives in the context of existingcareer developmentmetaphors.Through their narratives, the respondents were able to consider, reflect upon and attempt to make sense of thecareerpatterns in their lives ([10] Chase, 2005). The macro-, meso- and micro-factors (including the organizational, cultural, social, family), which impact upon thecareer developmentof the sample is captured in narrative inquiry.The interviews were informal and exploratory in nature; however, an interview guide was used to ensure a degree of consistency across all interviews. Themes covered in the interview included eliciting narratives from the interviewees on their perceivedcareerprior to their international move,careerinfluences/influencers, plans; and then moving to how theircareersunfolded in the host country, a reconstruction of theircareersas SEs. The interviews lasted between one and two hours, were tape recorded and transcribed in full. On analysis of the interviews, patterns emerged from the material, which de-constructed thecareer developmentobstacles and options experienced by the SEs. QSR NVivo was used in coding and analyzing the qualitative interview transcripts, where concepts were coded narrowly and then re-coded more broadly under headings such as structural obstacles, serendipity,careercontacts. The movement from specific cases (careernarratives) to theory reflects an inductive approach. It is from a detailed analysis of those transcripts that thecareer developmentmetaphors discussed previously were reviewed and explored.The paper concentrates on a sub-category of SEs. Specifically, the sample that was investigated was non-French, western SEs that had moved to the south of France of their own accord and that are committed to remaining in the area indefinitely. A non-probability sampling technique was adopted whereby the author approached SE contacts who then recommended other SEs that also agreed to partake in the study. A total of 17 males and 20 females were interviewed, of 12 nationalities (western European, American, Australian), and aged between 29 and 62. Each of them had active professional (paid work-related)careers, with their roles ranging from senior managers, to IT consultants, to entrepreneurs, to telemarketing operators. They all can be classified as working in "skilled" jobs. Their marital and family status ranged from single to co-habiting or married or divorced/widowed; with and without children (of varying ages). The aim of the study was to uncover general patterns from the sample, the members of which were all foreign residents in the south of France for a potentially permanent duration.This section has described the sample, sampling and research approach of the undertaking. The next section presents the findings, where thecareernarratives are reviewed against the existing internationalcareer developmentmetaphors.Findings and implicationsThe contemporarycareer developmentmetaphors found in the context of internationalcareersof "careerpath," "boundarylesscareer," "proteancareer" and "careercapital" are represented in the research. This section provides evidence of the relevance of each metaphor for the SEs. However, the complexity ofcareeroptions and choices for the SEs is highlighted in the cultural context and labor market situation specific to the country in question, France. The requirement evident from contemporary studies in internationalcareersis for a more holistic, all encompassing framework with which to explore internationalcareers, such as from the structure/agency perspective ([29] Richardson and Mallon, 2005) and from a micro-, meso- and macro-perspective ([2] Al Ariss and Ozbilgin, 2010). This author argues that the metaphor of a river better describes thecareer developmentprocess the SEs in the sample experience, with high or low starts, different tributaries (opportunities and challenges) flowing in and out of thecareerriver at different stages; some rivers growing large, while others fading away and perhaps then following and growing again along a different path. A river includes history (of origin, of flow, of experience) and context (location, opportunity) in its path/journey, which this author feels better represents the need incareerresearch to include more elements incareerresearch (rather than focus on one or two aspects) in order to provide a more holistic overview ofcareerin action.Thecareerjourney metaphor is evident in the SE'scareernarratives. Shaun (39, British, married, two children: 2.5 years, eight months) comments that:[...] only last week I was on an assessment centre for 3 days [...] and that's part of [a]career developmentprogramme for me personally, but I'm one of the exceptions. I know not everyone's being treated like this.Shaun experiences a traditional, organizationalcareertrajectory, moving vertically up the hierarchy. He acknowledges he is "one of the exceptions," however. For other SEs, the boundarylesscareeris more evident, with inter-organizational opportunities (meso-context) arising thanks to their international acumen (micro-context). Donal (36, Irish, married, two step-children) reflects that:Certainly in the [...] roles I've ended up [...] working with or for [...] multi-cultural people and doing different things. [...] I [...] keep dealing with [...] people that are all spread over Europe - whether they're customers, colleagues, or whatever. [...] That's probably one of the reasons I ended up doing what I'm doing now, because of my experience. Because I had worked with European wide teams and that was what I was taken on to do here.Evidence of the boundarylesscareerconcept as acareerjourney the SEs encounter is present in thecareernarratives of the SEs in this study. However, it is also apparent in their narratives that macro-conditions have impacted on the boundarylessness opportunities. Hilda (41, German, married, seven-year-old daughter) notes that "nowadays it's not so easy to find a job."The boundaryless and organizationalcareer developmentoptions are therefore relevant for SEs but within a wider context as shown above. The river metaphor which conjures up images of water flowing not only of its own accord, but having to deal with challenges of terrain, external challenges (such as dams being built or rivers redirected) reflects the more holistic nature ofcareer. The river metaphor would appear particularly relevant in the international context where many factors seem beyond the control of the individual, such as employment policies (macro-context), as experienced by Hilda (41, German, married, seven-year-old daughter):I studied German to become a German teacher in France because I liked that. And then I realised that it was not possible as a foreigner to participate to the [...] French official exams and once you have passed them then you become a teacher at the school or at the university [...] And as a German at that time I couldn't.Other research has also noted thecareerbarriers that SEs face in the macro-context ([1] Al Ariss, 2010; [27] Richardson, 2009). Due to the macro-legalities in France at the time, Hilda had to re-assess hercareer(knowing why)development, and through contacts (knowing whom), she morphed (in protean terms) her training into IT in order to proactively target a new multinational organization she had heard was opening up in the area at the time, that was looking for international staff in the IT area (knowing how). In keeping with the "proteancareer" concept, she managed her owncareer developmentat that stage so as to better position herself for job opportunities in the new multinational organization.Other respondents noted the prevailing protean or self-managing aspect tocareer developmentwithin an organizationalcareer(micro-context). Steve (34, British, married) finds that:[...] you look after yourself here. It's a bit chaotic to be quite honest with you. You have to look after yourself.Those respondents with partners and/or children were further influenced by their significant others in weighing up potentialcareerprogression and continued residency in the area. Billy (52, Welsh, divorced, three children aged 19, 14 and 11) consciously chose to prioritize his family over an ambitious externalcareer developmentoption:I think you have to take a choice at some time in yourcareer: either you want to stay around your family or you decide to, you want to make acareer. My choice was to stay around my family, to avoid travelling if I could. So that limited mycareerpath.Individual ambitions therefore need to be considered in light of a more holistic ([36] Wolfe and Kolb, 1980) picture ofcareer development, which includes micro-, meso- macro-, relational and structural influences. It is the collage of influencing elements (family, ambition, organizational support, labor policies, etc.) that determine the way the individual'scareercould go.Time was also found to be very relevant in the study. The use of past experiences in building up potential futurecareerscenarios dependent on the structural conditions in which an individual finds him/her-self is consciously considered by the respondents. For instance, Rick (43, British, engaged) notes how hiscareerhas morphed from technical to business, and how his past experiences would serve him well should he be forced to changecareerdue to potential lay-offs in his current organization:One of the things I've been priding myself on is being able to pick up a new topic: [...] so you've got two or three aspects to your job. [...] And so if I'm laid off, or if I was forced to move for one reason or the other, I would be looking at trying to expand that [other] role out.The combination of past experiences in developing futurecareerpathways is a central element of the proteancareerconcept. The ability to transform over time depending on the life focus is apparent in the narratives. The proteancareeralso focusses on the subjectivecareerdimension rather than on the objective one. Learning new tasks, combining work and personal life, thereby taking a holistic approach tocareersis underlined. Individuals using their past experience in re-inventing theircareersor in progressing more in theircareers, correspond with the concept of the proteancareerwhereby individuals morph theircareerfocus over time, depending on opportunity and circumstance, in order to survive. The morphing ofcareerswithin the proteancareerconcept describes how pieces of one's life's jigsaw of experiences and make-up contribute to the direction most attractive to the individual at particular points in time and under context specific circumstances.This paper has focussed on the findings relating to internationalcareer developmentmetaphors as experienced by the sample in question. There are many opportunities and challenges faced by the SEs in theircareer development, some of which they have no control over. The process or evolving nature of an internationalcareer, which is influenced by chance, by the individual (agency), by structural facilitators or limiters, and by the temporal conditions, is underlined. The notion of taking a simple uni-dimensional approach toward examining internationalcareer developmentis not practical. A more comprehensive examination ofcareer development, as represented more aptly, the author here feels, by a river metaphor is warranted.There is a dearth of empirical research oncareerswhich attempt to encompass a more comprehensive examination of factors influencingcareer development([17] Gunzet al., 2008, p. 307). [26] Patton and McMahon (2006) have attempted to address the gap between theory and practice in developing a systems theory framework ofcareer development, which encompasses individual, contextual, social and environmental elements with the acknowledgment that these elements change over time and are subject to chance, etc. This study shows the constant negotiation between macro-conditions (such as employment opportunity), family conditions (the preferences of family members) and individual ambitions, which vary over time. The metaphor of a river would better encompass the meandering, evolving, protean nature of thecareersrepresented in the study in reality.Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] is built up inductively from the research conducted. It presents a framework for more holisticcareer developmentstudies, breaking down somewhat the differentcareerinfluences/influencers.Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] presents an overview of thecareerinfluencers that emerged from the study. It unpicks different concerns that individuals have when contemplating theircareerfuture. Different aspects impacting oncareerchoice anddevelopmentwere coded during analysis of the interviewee transcripts. These were then re-coded into broader themes/influencers, which are presented on the left side of Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] (primarycareerinfluencers), with examples of the different aspects under those themes on the right-hand side of Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] (dependent on).The study found that individual and relational aspects impact oncareerdecisions (micro-context). Equally, the meso-context needs to be considered: concerning the organization(s) where the individuals are employed and the work/technical job aspects, which the individual encounters in that workplace. Additionally, societal pressures and cultural norms may insert barriers or challenges incareerprogression (such as the expectation for females to support their partners'careers). Also in the macro-context, legislation and policies existing in the particular country where the international assignee is based, impact oncareerchoice and opportunity. An example of this would be the requirement of working visas or residency permits. All of these factors, in their many varying forms as shown by the examples presented in Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.], affect the individual'scareer development.Importantly, these factors are not static, with different factors being prioritized at different life points, for different people. For instance, one respondent (Susan, 39, British, single), after the death of her father, reprioritized hercareeroutlook from that which had previously favored individual progression and advancement to prioritizing her work-life balance:I'm not particularly interested in [...] rising up a ladder in a corporation [...] I have a very different attitude now because my father died when I was 25 [...] And so now I tend to really live my life where [...] money isn't [...] the be all and end all.The diversity of influencers, varying in priority over time, adds further weight to the conceptualization ofcareersas rivers, with the potential of moving into different streams, growing, or subsiding at varying points in an individual'scareer. This framework is useful as a guide for further developingcareerresearch and theory, particularly in an international context. The different influencers could be investigated quantitatively with a large sample in order to ascertain if there are common trends with regards to individual characteristics (age, gender, relationship status, family status, etc.) and prioritization ofcareerinfluencers. A longitudinal qualitative study would also shed light on exploring motivations forcareerinfluence prioritization change over time.The framework is also of benefit to HRM professionals in thecareer developmentpractice. It persuades practitioners to re-considercareer developmentprocesses in their organizations so that other influencers besides job, organization and the individual's ability and skills are taken into account. It highlights that at different periods during an individual's life, different priorities come to the forefront, which may require differentcareer developmentoptions, such as the ability to takecareerbreaks, reducing working hours or to increase responsibility, depending on the individual's personal circumstances and opportunities in the organization. The framework presented in Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] serves as a check-list which HRD practitioners can use when assessing thedevelopmentsupport an organization provides to its employees, depending on the relative prioritization of the factors at eachcareer developmentmeeting, recognizing that these prioritizations will change depending on individual circumstances.The implication of this study for practice is to highlight the requirement to re-develop HRD andcareer developmentwithin organizations, particularly for non-national employees that face even more influencers (as depicted in Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]). It suggests that more innovative approaches to HRD andcareer developmentare required within organizations; approaches that accept the different influencers impacting on an individual'scareerchoices from a structure (meso, macro) and agent (micro/individual) standpoint over time.Conclusions: limitations and further research opportunitiesThis paper was limited in its analysis of specific metaphors relating to thecareer developmentof international assignees. Further research could be conducted of a broader scale in order to more comprehensively encompass each of [20] Inkson's (2004, 2007) nine primarycareermetaphors and their sub-components in an analysis of internationalcareer development. In that respect, the analysis shared in this paper could be seen as a preliminary discussion oncareermetaphors most pertinent for SEs and other categories of international assignees.The research collected, coded thematically and inductively from the interview transcripts, and analyzed thecareernarratives collected from the respondents during in-depth interviews. While the use of the QSR NVivo software package for coding and analysis facilitated the coding and recoding of themes into trees and nodes, other researchers may have coded differently, which is always a consideration in qualitative research undertakings.This paper suggests a more nuanced metaphor (river) to describe the SEscareer development. The research was conducted in a specific geographical case study location where an ethnographical approach was adopted and narratives were collected. Despite the specificity of the research, the author suggests that the more holistic nature of the study contributes to thedevelopmentofcareertheory, which attempts to incorporate multiple aspects which impact uponcareer development.Contemporarycareertheory notes the "need to tailor psychological contractual conditions to the specific needs of the individual" ([24] Larsen and Ellehave, 2000, p. 114). This mirrors [35] Swart and Kinnie (2004) that organizations adopting a uniform, one size fits all approach tocareermanagement is not sufficient. This underlines the requirement for different individualcareeralternatives to be discussed incareermanagement sessions (potentially using elements from Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] for guidance).While thecareermetaphors analyzed in this study showed their relevance and existence among the SEs, the description ofcareersrunning along a river that meanders, can run dry, go to sea, grow wider, deeper or shallower over its course seems a more nuanced description of thecareersthis study explored. However, one should not dismiss other metaphors in contributing new ones. [20] Inkson (2004, p. 98): "Every metaphor has its own strengths and weaknesses, its applicability and non-applicability to the specific situation. True understanding comes from considering a range of metaphors." Thus the river metaphor described in this paper should be considered as one of many different perspectives with which to viewcareers, but which seems to aptly describe the sample considered as well as to enable a more holistic incorporation ofcareerinfluencers.
