Pengembangan karir

Pembangan karir → Career deveploment

Tugas Mata Kuliah :

Psikologi Industri dan Organisasi

Nama Dosen :

Laila Meiliyandrie I Wardani, PhD

Nama Penyusun :

De Ani Cyntya (46113210010)

Hasna Zulfa P.H (46113210018)

Mala Sari (461132100

Daftar isi

Pengertian Pengembangan Karir

Konsep Dasar Karir dan Perencanaan Karir

Peran Pengembangan Karir

Skema pengembangan karir

Tujuan dan Manfaat Pengembangan Karir

Definisi Karir Konseling

Pengertian Pengembangan Karir

Pengertian Pengembangan dan Karir

Pengembangan (development) yaitu fungsi operasional kedua dari manajemen personalia.

Menurut Malayu S.P. Hasibuan (2006:76) pengembangan adalah suatu usaha untuk

meningkatkan kemampuan teknis, teoritis, konseptual, dan moral karyawan sesuai

dengan kebutuhan pekerjaan atau jabatan melalui pendidikan dan pelatihan.Sedangkan

Menurut Henry Simamora (2007 : 412), Karir merupakan urutan aktivitas-aktivitas yang

berhubungan dengan pekerjaan dan perilaku, nilai-nilai dan aspirasi seseorang selama

rentang hidup orang tersebut.

Pengertian Pengembangan Karir

Pengembangan karir merupakan proses menyelaraskan rencana karir karyawan dengan

kebutuhan perusahaan melalui manajement karir. Dalam masa kerjanya bersama

perusahaan, umumnya karyawan ingin mendapatkan peningkatan karir dengan

mendapatkan promosi kejabatan dengan tingkatan yang lebih tinggi.

Pengembangan karir sangat membantu karyawan dalam menganalisis kemampuan dan

minat mereka untuk dapat disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan SDM sejalan dengan

pertumbuhan dan perkembangan perusahaan. Pengembangan karir juga merupakan hal

yang penting dimana manajemen dapat meningkatkan produktivitas, menungkatkan sikap

kerja, menciptakan kepuasan kerja juga mencapai tujuan perusahaan.

Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa pengembangan karir merupakan suatu proses dalam

peningkatan dan penambahan kemampuan seseorang karyawan yang dilakukan secara

formal dan berkelanjutan untuk mencapai sasaran dan tujuan karirnya.

Konsep Dasar Karir dan Perencanaan Karir

Konsep karir adalah konsep yang netral (tidak berkonotasi positif atau negatif). Karena itu karir

ada yang baik dan ada pula karir yang buruk. Perencanaan karir seseorang dapat berjalan baik

atau buruk sebenarnya ditentukan juga oleh peran dan dukungan dari departemen sumber daya

manusia dan manajemen personalia.

Menurut Handoko, beberapa tugas seorang manajer personalia adalah sebagai berikut :

a. Mengembangkan para karyawan yang dapat dipromosikan.

b. Menurunkan perputaran karyawan.

c. Mengungkap potensi karyawan

d. Mendorong pertumbuhan karyawan

e. Mengurangi penimbunan karyawan walaupun mereka berpotensi tinggi.

f. Memuaskan kebutuhan karyawan

g. Membantu pelaksanaan rencana-rencana kegiatan yang telah disetujui.

Perencanaan karir adalah perencanaan yang dilakukan baik oleh individu pegawai maupun oleh

organisasi berkenaan dengan karir pegawai, terutama mengenai persiapan yang harus dipenuhi

oleh seorang pegawai untuk mencapai tujuan karir tertentu .

Sementara itu, beberapa konsep dasar perencanaan karir menurut Umar adalah sebagai berikut :

a. Karir sebagai suatu urutan promosi atau transfer ke jabatan yang lebih besar tanggung

jawabnya atau ke lokasi-lokasi yang lebih baik selama kehidupan kerja seseorang.

b. Karir sebagai petunjuk pekerjaan yang membentuk suatu pola kemajuan yang sistematik

dan jelas (membentuk satu jalur karir).

c. Karir sebagai sejarah pekerjaan seseorang atau serangkaian posisi yang dipegangnya selama

kehidupan kerja.

Dalam perencanaan karir ada lima syarat utama yang harus dipenuhi agar proses perencanaan

tersebut dapat berjalan dengan baik. Kelima syarat tersebut adalah :

a. Dialog

Dalam hal ini pegawai perlu diajak dialog untuk merencanakan karirnya.

b. Bimbingan

Organisasi harus memberikan bimbingan kepada pegawainya agar bisa meniti karir dengan baik,

karena tidak semua pegawai memahami jalur karir.

c. Keterlibatan Individual

Dalam perencanaan larir harus melibatkan individu pegawai, mereka hendaknya diberi

kesempatan untuk berbicara dan memberi masukan. Hal ini sama dengan syarat pertama yakni

dialog.

d. Umpan Balik

Proses pemberian umpan balik akan terjadi jika ada dialog.

e. Mekanisme perencanaan karir

Yang dimaksud umpan balik di sini adalah tata cara atau prosedur yang ditetapkan agar proses

perencanaan karir dapat dilaksanakan dengan sebaik-baiknya.

Peran Pengembangan Karir

Dalam proses pengembangan karir individu (karyawan) dalam organisasi, ada 3 hubungan saling

terkait antara individu, manajer, maupun organisasi. Ketiga-tiganya memiliki peran masing-

masing. Gary Dessler menjelaskan peran ketiganya dalam pengembangan karir sebagai berikut:

a. Peran Individu

- Terimalah tanggung jawab untuk karir Anda sendiri.

- Taksirlah minat, keterampilan, dan nilai anda.

- Carilah informasi dan rencana karir.

- Bangunlah tujuan dan rencana karir.

- Manfaatkanlah peluang pengembangan.

- Berbicaralah dengan manajer Anda tentang karir Anda.

- Ikutilah seluruh rencana karir yang realistic.

b. Peran Manajer

- Berikanlah umpan balik kinerja yang tepat waktu.

- Berikan dukungan dan penilaian pengembangan.

- Berpartisipasilah dalam diskusi pengembangan karir.

- Dukunglah rencana pengembangan karir.

c. Peran Organisasi

- Komunikasi misi, kebijakan, dan prosedur.

- Berikan peluang pelatihan dan pengembangan.

- Berikan informasi karir dan program karir.

- Tawarkan satu keanekaragaman pilihan karir.

Jadi, pengembangan karir seorang individu sangat terpengaruh dari 3 peran tersebut. Ketiga-

tiga harus saling mendukung dalam pengembangan karir. Dalam peran seorang manajer, Gary

Dessler menjelaskan lebih lanjut, bahwa ada 4 peran bagi manajer dalam pengembangan karir

karyawan , yaitu:

Pelatih ,Penilai, Penasehat, Agen Rujukan

• Mendengar

• Menjelaskan

• Menyelidiki

• Menyatakan keprihatinan • Memberikan umpan balik

• Menjelaskan standar

• Menjelaskan tanggung jawab jabatan • Menghasilkan pilihan

• Membantu menetapkan tujuan

• Merekomendasi/ memberi nasehat • Menautkan karyawan dengan sumber daya

• Mengkonsultasi-kan rencana tindakan

Dari peran tersebut, nampak bahwa seorang manajer sangat berperan dalam pengembangan karir

individu di sebuah organisasi. Manajer yang baik seharusnya mendukung penuh kinerja

karyawan dan proaktif untuk membantu karyawan dalam mengembangkan karir.

Skema pengembangan karir

Tujuan dan Manfaat Pengembangan Karir

Menurut Fubrin J.Andrew (2005: 77-78), tujuan dan manfaat pengembangan karir adalah :

1) Membantu dalam Pencapaian Tujuan Individu dan Perusahaan

Pengembangan karir membantu pencapaian tujuan perusahaan dan tujuan individu. Seorang

karyawan yang sukses dengan prestasi kerja sangat baik kemudian menduduki posisi jabatan

yang lebih tinggi, hal ini berarti tujuan perusahaan dan tujuan invidu tercapai.

2) Menunjukan Hubungan Kesejahteraan Karyawan

Perusahaan merencanakan karir karyawan dengan meningkatkan kesejahteraannya agar

karyawan lebih tinggi loyalitasnya.

3) Membantu Karyawan Menyadari Kemampuan Potensi Mereka

Pengembangan karir membantu menyadarkan karyawan akan kemampuannya untuk menduduki

suatu jabatan tertentu sesuai dengan potensi dan keahliannya.

4) Memperkuat Hubungan antara Karyawan dan Perusahaan

Pengembangan karir akan memperkuat hubungan dan sikap karyawan terhadap perusahaanya.

5) Membuktikan Tanggung Jawab sosial

Pengembangan karir merupakan suatu cara menciptakan iklim kerja yang positif dan karyawan

menjadi lebih bermental sehat.

6) Membantu memperkuat Pelaksanaan Program-program Perusahaan

Pengembangan karir akan membantu program-program perusahaan lainnya agar tujuan

perusahaan tercapai.

7) Mengurangi Turn Over dan Biaya Kepegawaian

Pengembangan karir dapat menjadikan turn over rendah dan begitu pula biaya kepegawaian

menjadi lebih efektif.

8) Mengurangi Keusangan Profesi dan Manajerial

Pengembangan karir dapat menghindarkan dari keusangan dan kebosanan profesi dan

manajerial.

9) Menggiatkan Analisis dari Keseluruhan Karyawan

Perencanaan karir dimaksudkan mengintegerasikanperencanaan kerja dan kepegawaian.

10) Menggiatkan Suatu Pemikiran (Pandangan) Jarak Waktu yang Panjang

Pengembangan karir berhubungan dengan jarak waktu yang pankang. Hal ini karena penempatan

suatu posisi jabatan memerlukan persyaratan dan kualifikasi yang sesuai dengan posisinya.

Cara menyusun sistem pengembangaan karir

Career management merupakan bagian penting dari perkembangan SDM dimana hal merupakan

upaya untuk mendorong dan memotivasi karyawan agar dapat memiliki jenjang karir yang

berkelanjutan.

Dengan memiliki rencana akan jenjang karyawan ,seorang karyawan tidak hanya akan lebih

termotivasi dalam pekerjaannya,namun juga dapat memiliki tingkat kepuasaan kerja yang lebih

tinggi .

Manajemen karir merupakan upaya agar karyawan dapat meningkatkan wawasan dan

kemampuannya selama masa kerjanya diluar tugas tugas rutinnya,bahkan bila perlu meluas

hingga ke pekerjaan lain dengan deskripsi tugas yang berbeda

Sayangnya hal ini sering luput dari perhatian karyawan baru yang belum berpengalaman atau

baru di terima kerja setelah lulus kuliah ;akhirnya,ketika usia dan waktu kerja mulai

bertambah,karyawan tersebut baru menyadari bahwa pekerjaanya tidak membawanya kemana-

mana sehingga kepuasaaan dan motivasi kerja menjadi menurun.

Dalam hal ini, departemen HR harus membantu karyawan dalam hal career management

terutama bagi karyawan yang potensial agar karyawan tersebut bisa berkembang dalam

perusahaan.

Mendorong career management di dalam perusahaan

Departemen HR bisa mengusulkan beberapa program untuk mendorong karyawan dalam hal

manajemen karir, baik itu usul resmi yang diajukan ke manajemen maupun usul yang bersifat

personal yang dapat disampaikan dalam rapat atau pelatihan.

Contohnya, departemen HR bisa mengusulkan adanya program yang berhubungan dengan job

shadow, dimana karyawan dari satu departemen mendapat pelatihan atau belajar melakukan

pekerjaan yang menjadi tugas departemen berbeda; sebagai contoh, bartender di hotel bisa

belajar menjadi staf pelayan restoran, sekretaris bisa belajar menjadi asisten admin, supervisor

bisa memelajari tugas-tugas quality controller dan sebagainya.

Selain menambah wawasan dan keahlian, strategi career management ini juga bisa mendorong

karyawan untuk menentukan jenjang karir berdasarkan keahlian yang berbeda dari yang

sebelumnya ia tekuni.

Departemen HR bisa menjadikan program ini sebagai program rutin atau formal perusahaan

yang dilakukan dalam periode khusus dengan persetujuan dewan direksi, dan bila perlu,

menunjuk karyawan yang berpengalaman sebagai mentor.

Selain itu, departemen HR juga bisa mengusulkan program pelatihan rutin yang berkaitan

dengan pengembangan keahlian dan wawasan dimana karyawan dari tiap departemen dapat

mengikutinya dengan jadwal yang sudah diatur agar semua departemen dapat memeroleh

pelatihan.

Cara lain untuk mengembangkan karir karyawan adalah dengan memberi informasi seluas-

luasnya kepada tiap karyawan potensial yang serius dalam hal mengembangkan karir di

perusahaan.

Untuk itu, departemen HR harus memiliki sumber-sumber yang kaya mengenai kesempatan

untuk mengembangkan kehalian dan potensi karir seperti jadwal seminar, in-house training dan

bahkan program beasiswa untuk karyawan.

Jangan lupa untuk menyediakan informasi mengenai jenis keahlian yang dibutuhkan untuk

mendaki atau menduduki suatu jenjang karir kepada karyawan potensial yang berminat sehingga

karyawan tersebut akan mengetahui hal-hal apa saja yang harus ia kuasai agar mampu

melakukan career management sendiri.

Sebagai upaya untuk menggali potensi karyawan, department HR bisa mengusulkan pada jajaran

direksi dan para manajer agar mencoba menempatkan beberapa karyawan dari suatu departemen

ke dalam proyek dari departemen lain yang berbeda untuk melihat kemampuan karyawan dalam

menyesuaikan diri dengan kondisi di luar zona nyaman.

Manajemen karir yang dilakukan dengan baik bukan hanya akan menguntungkan karyawan,

namun juga akan berimbas pada kemajuan perusahaan sekaligus menurunkan tingkat pindah

kerja dan ketidakpuasan di kalangan karyawan terutama mereka yang tergolong karyawan

potensial.

Definisi Karir Konseling

Terdapat konvergensi dalam definisi konseling karir, sebuah proses yang mungkin diawali

dengan penerimaan gagasan Super (1980) yang berhubungan dengan sifat interaktif peranan

kehidupan. Pada tahun 1991, Linda Brooks dan saya (Brown dan Brooks, 1991) mendefinisikan

konseling karir sebagai sebuah proses yang bertujuan untuk memberikan fasilitas pada

perkembangan karir dan mungkin melibatkan pemilihan, pemasukan, penyesuaian, atau

kemajuan dalam sebuah karir. Kita mendefinisikan permasalahan karir sebagai keragu-raguan

yang berkembang karena terlau sedikitnya informasi, keragu-raguan yang tumbuh karena

kebimbangan pilihan; ketidakpuasan pada performa pekerjaan; ketak sejenisan antara orang dan

peranannya dalam perkerjaan; dan ketak sesuaian antara peranan dan peranan kehidupan lain,

seperti keluarga atau waktu luang. The National Career Development Association (NCDA, 1997)

menerapkan sebuah definisi yang sama namun lebih sederhana. Organisasi ini mendefinisikan

konseling karir sebagai sebuah ‘proses membantu seseorang dalam perkembangan sebuah

kehidupan karir dengan sebuah focus pada definisi peranan pekerja dan bagaimana peranan

tersebut berinteraksi dengan peranan kehidupan yang lainnya’ (hal.2). sebagian besar isinya,

definisi ini merefleksikan posisi yang diambil oleh Gysber, Heppner, dan Johnston (2003);

Admunson (2003); dan para ahli teori postmodern lainnya yang mungkin mengambil

permasalahan dengan gagasan yang lengkap dalam definisi karena mereka terlihat menganggap

bahwa terdapat batasan yang muncul diantara dan ditengah-tengah peranan kehidupan, sebuah

anggapan yang akan menjadi tidak konsisten dengan pandangan perspektif holistic mereka.

Seperti yang telah digambarkan pada bab 2 dan 3, mekanisme konseling karir, termasuk

pendekatan pada hubungan, penilaian, dll, berbeda-beda berdasarkan pada teori yang diterapkan.

Gysber dkk (2003) mengembangkan sebuah taksonomi tugas-tugas yang muncul dalam

konseling karir secara simultan dengan proses pengembangan sebuah perserikatan kerja. Tugas

ini termasuk mengidentifikasi permasalahan yang disajikan; menyusun hubungan konseling;

mengembangkan sebuah ikatan konselor-klien; mengumpukan informasi mengenai klien,

termasuk informasi personal dan pengendalian kontekstual; pengaturan tujuan; seleksi intervensi;

pengambilan tindakan; dan evaluasi hasil. Seperti yang akan ditunjukan nanti, model konseling

multikultural digarisbesarkan pada bab ini menerima sebagian besar gagasan yang berhubungan

dengan struktur konseling karir ini dengan perubahan kecil.

Kesimpulan

Dalam sebuah organisasi, seorang karyawan bisa merencanakan pengembangan karirnya.

Dalam merencanakan pengembangan karir individu, tak bisa dilepaskan antara peran individu

(karyawan), manajer, dan organisasi tersebut. Ketiga-tiganya harus berperan saling mendukung

dan mendorong pengembangan karir karyawan. Ada beberapa hal/faktor yang mempengaruhi

pengembangan karir individu, tapi bisa disimpulkan jadi dua factor, yakni factor internal

(professionalisme karyawan) dan factor internal (lingkungan organisasi, seperti tipe manajemen,

manajer, system pengembangan karir di organisasi, dan lain-lain).

Pengembangan karir merupakan salah satu tugas manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia (SDM).

Setiap manajer harus memiliki sistem manajerial dalam mengelola karyawan, salah satunya

sistem pengembangan karir karyawan . Semakin bagus sistem pengembangan karir karyawan di

dalam organisasi, semakin mudah bagi karyawan untuk merencanakan pengembangan karirnya.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Hastho Joko Nur Utomo dan Meilan Sugiarto, Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia (Yogyakarta :

Ardana Media. 2007).

Gary Dessler, Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia, (terj.) oleh. Benyamin Molan, (Jakarta:

Prenhallindo, 1998).

Triton P.B., Paradigma Baru Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia (Yogyakarta : Tugu. 2005)

Al Ariss, A. (2010), "Modes of engagement: migration, self-initiated expatriation and career development",Career Development International, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 338-58.

Larsen, H.H. and Ellehave, C.F. (2000), "Careers in organizations", in Brewster, C. and Larsen,

H.H. (Eds), Human Resource Management in Northern Europe. Trends, Dilemmas and Strategy,

Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 89-124.

Jurnal 1

Career development (CD) has long been cited as a core area associated with human

resource development(HRD). Despite this explicit connection, few publications focusing on CD

are available in general HRD-related literature. This review outlines selected theories, examines

selected definitions of CD, and analyzes the aims ofcareer development in relation to HRD. The

authors argue that there is much more opportunity to explore CD as a necessary component of

HRD than has been undertaken to date. Furthermore, they make recommendations for multilevel

integration and related theory-building approaches that may enhance the role of CD in HRD.

Keywords: career development; human resource development; training

When it comes to career development (CD) perspectives in the context of human

resource development (HRD) literature, HRD scholars and practitioners appear to have paid little

attention to the importance of CD. At present, there is a broad array of theory, practice, and

knowledge-based perspectives that inform HRD (Desimone, Werner, & Harris, 2002;

McGoldrick, Stewart, & Watson, 2002; Swanson & Holton, 2001; Woodall, 2001). These

theoretical influences have been articulated in various HRD literature, related texts, and ongoing

discussions regarding definitions and foundations of HRD. Furthermore, exploration

and development of HRD-related theory appears to be increasing-particularly within the

Academy of Human Resource Development(AHRD) and since the launch of Human

Resource Development Review (Torraco, 2004). Although little research has been published to

support including CD in HRD, a central element in HRD definitional and theoretical discussions

is the inclusion of CD.

Many HRD scholars and practitioners are familiar with McLagan's (1983) definition of HRD as

the "integrated use of training and development, career development, and

organization development to improve individual and organizational performance" (p. 7). Given

this and related discussions, practitioners, scholars, and students may be led to believe that CD is

a pillar or a load-bearing wall for HRD. Load-bearing walls in buildings provide support for the

gravitational force exerted on a structure (Encarta Dictionary, 2005a). CD is often presented as

providing major structural support for the practice and scholarly endeavors associated with HRD.

Despite assertions that CD is a central element of HRD (e.g., McLagan, 1989; Swanson &

Holton, 2001; Weinberger, 1998), support for these claims are difficult to locate in the general

HRD literature. In fact, CD appears to be a relatively minor consideration in HRD research, and

rarely the explicit focus of AHRD literature.

Our recent exploration of AHRD publications identified fewer than 40 total articles to date in the

Conference Proceedings and only three in the four AHRD-refereed journals (Advances in

Developing Human Resources, Human Resource Development International, Human

Resource Development Quarterly, and Human ResourceDevelopment Review) from 1996 to

2005 that specifically discuss CD. This count is compared (using the same search parameters) to

nearly 300 references to training or training and development (another identified foundational

element of HRD) in AHRD publications overall and better than 50 times the number of CD

articles in AHRD's refereed journals. CD does not appear to be overtly supporting the HRD

structure or, to complete the analogy, may be more "window dressing"-defined as a "deceptively

appealing presentation of something"-than part of the foundation or structure of the field

(Encarta Dictionary, 2005b).

Despite this relative lack of attention to CD, examination of CD definitions is important to HRD

scholars or professionals interested in the consideration of multiple levels of analysis (Garavan,

McGuire, & O'Donnell, 2004) such as the meaningful integration of systems and organization-

level development with individualdevelopment in the workplace. In addition, CD is relevant to

HRD practice (McDonald & Hite, 2005; McLagan, 1989; Weinberger, 1998) and has a relevant

theory base. Although it is difficult to fully ascertain why exploration of CD has been fairly

limited in HRD and AHRD literature, an observation recently underscored by McDonald and

Hite (2005), a few reasons include

1. the perceived high costs of individually oriented HRD efforts in the workplace

2. the existence of often-limited views of CD as a career counselor-client relationship only

3. the creation of employee assistance programs and other outsourced or external elements that

remove traditional CD practice from the context of the organization making individuals

responsible for their owndevelopment

4. the presentation of systems and organization- level learning and performance as superordinate,

overriding concerns for individual level issues in the general HRD literature

5. a lack of foundational and theoretical literature elaborating on the often cited relationship

between CD and HRD

6. the use of different terminology across international contexts

7. the dominance of a constructivist perspective that questions the use of acontexual or

predetermined frameworks and, therefore, rejects efforts to formulate general definitions or

explorations associated with HRD and CD.

We agree with the statement by Swanson and Holton (2001) that "career development is being

overlooked as a contributor to HRD" (p. 312), and by McDonald and Hite (2005) that "HRD can

renew its commitment to career development as one of its fundamental functions" (p. 437).

Several HRD scholars have engaged in exploration of HRD-related definitions and theory as

attempts to clarify issues, identify necessary outcomes, explore related literature, and stimulate

related research, applications, and discussions (Egan, 2002; Weinberger, 1998; Woodall, 2001).

This article has a similar aim. Recognizing that there are many ways to approach explorations of

definitions and related theories, we believe, like McDonald and Hite (2005), that failure to

engage more specifically in CD-related discussion in general HRD will be a disservice to the

field and a contradiction to the explicit linkages between CD and HRD as supported in

foundational HRD literature.

Purpose and Research Questions

The purpose of this inquiry is threefold: (a) to review existing CD theories, (b) to examine

definitions of CD and their concomitant dependent variables (DVs), and (c) to apply the

outcomes of (a) and (b) to recommendations for future theory-building research connecting CD

and HRD. To this end four research questions are used to guide and inform the inquiry, namely:

Research Question 1: Based on available resources, what are definitions of CD?

Research Question 2: Based on identified CD definitions, what are related DVs of CD?

Research Question 3: What patterns exist among identified definitions and DVs?

Research Question 4: What is the potential for CD theory and definitions to inform or be

integrated into HRD theory building?

Our desire is that this elaboration of theories and definitions will stimulate discussion, aid in

the developmentof new insights, demonstrate connections between CD and HRD, and advance

the possibility for more elaboration and progress in the development of CD-related definitions,

theory building, research, and exploration in the context of HRD. In addition, our choice to

explore DVs, or outcomes, is based on our position that shared aims between CD and HRD

should be the starting point for exploring the interactions between them. According to Swanson

(1996), "The dependent variable-the outcome-is the ultimate reason for human

resource development" (p. 204). Swanson, therefore, stated, "HRD must get serious about the

dependent variable. To accomplish this, HRD scholars must be willing to learn more about the

dependent variable" (p. 206).

Limitations

It is important to note that this examination of definitions and dependent variables has several

limitations. First, we used AHRD publications to support our argument that CD is not well

represented in HRD literature. We were, however, unable to find articles in other journals that

contradicted our position. We refute but are somewhat vulnerable to the contention that all CD-

specific work is inherently HRD even if HRD is never discussed. In addition, our identification

of core CD theories, definitions, and dependent variables is limited to our methods for doing so.

Overview of Definitions, Dependent Variables, and Theory Building

Theory building is often defined as a "process for modeling real-world phenomena" (Torraco,

1997, p. 126). The use of definitions in the process of modeling elements of the real world is

essential to the theory-building process (Dubin, 1969). Without a clear understanding of the

parameters and applied problems associated with a phenomenon, theory cannot be adequately

constructed (Torraco, 1997). Nor can "coherent descriptions, explanations, and representations of

observed or experienced phenomena [be] . . . generated, verified, and refined" (Lynham, 2000, p.

161). According to Dubin (1969) theory building should be aimed toward practical outcomes

associated with explanation and prediction along with an intellectual interest in the

characteristics and nature of the phenomenon about which a theory is formulated. In addition,

Dubin's theory-then-research theory-building method requires, as the very first step, that the

units or concepts associated with theory under construction be clarified or defined. Without clear

definition, the goals of theory building in HRD-(a) to advance professionalism and maturity in

the field, (b) to help dissolve tension between HRD theory and practice, and (c) to develop

multiple approaches to HRD theory building and practice (Lynham, 2000)-cannot be

accomplished. Dubin's insight contradicts Holton's (2002) expressed concern that ongoing

exploration of HRD related definitions amounts to "scholarly 'navel examination'" (p. 275) and

further exploration may not help develop human resources or organizations. Although we share

Holton's concern that discussion of nuanced issues, such as HRD-related definitions, can seem

cumbersome, we also believe that the refinement of such discussions serve to support the goals

of theory building in HRD.

Although those studying applied fields such as HRD and CD must be concerned with practice

(McLagan, 1989), this concern is insufficient for sound theory building. Theorists, researchers,

and practitioners alike must also concern themselves with outcomes, thus ensuring that the

practice of HRD has clear aims and identifiable results (McLagan, 1989; Swanson, 1996)-what

Van de Ven (1989) and Marsick (1990) term rigor and relevance. In an effort to inform the

potential for interaction between CD and HRD at the theoretical level, we identify definitions,

clarify outcomes, associate selected CD theories, and make suggestions for further progress

associated with such theory building. Theory building in applied fields and practice can and

should be linked. Definitions play a key role in theory building for the purposes of informing

professionalism and practice-related outcomes (or DVs). In the following sections, we review

current foundational CD theories (first of a general and then a specific nature), present CD

definitions and their corresponding outcome and/or dependent variables, discuss briefly two

thematic categories of CD DVs (individual, and organizational and social), provide an

integration of CD and HRD perspectives, consider the interdependence among CD, HRD, and

multilevel applied theory building, and finally, draw some conclusions on the topic of CD as a

necessary load-bearing wall of HRD theory and practice.

Review of Core Career Development Theories

According to Hall (1987) a career can be defined as "the sequence of individually perceived

work-related experiences and attitudes that occur over the span of a person's work life" (p. 1).

CD has been defined by numerous scholars and supported by a number of theories. As identified

above, theory, theory development, and definitions have important interrelationships. Although

there may be no perfect way to organize CD theories, available literature often describes CD

theories as (a) structural or (b) developmental (Osipow, 1983). Structural theories are focused on

occupational tasks and individual attributes. Developmental theories, on the other hand, focus on

lifelong learning and human development. Chen (2003) divided CD theories into objectivist-

positivistic and constructivist approaches. Because precise categorization of CD theories into

these dualistic domains is cumbersome, we have divided 19 core CD theories into two core

categories (general and specific).

The first category deals with general CD theories (see Table 1) that include broad social science

theories and perspectives framed in CD-related contexts. The second category relates CD-

specific theories that have been most often devised by individual CD scholars. Identification of

these two categories and related theories involved not only the authors but also input from five

advanced scholars, each with 15 or more years of experience as university professors

specializing in CD. These experts were asked to review a list of CD theories frequently cited in

the literature to make recommendations or additions as core theories in CD. As a result of this

expert feedback, several theories were added to those initially identified.

The theories listed in Table 1 are limited to those identified by the researchers and experts as

foundational or core theories associated with CD. According to Osipow (1983, 1990), even

though CD theories may be clustered into groups, they are intertwined and may draw from one

another in actual practice and in empirical research. In addition, interrelationships exist between

CD theories and CD definitions. In fact, as is discussed below, there has been a call for a

convergence of CD theories into a more comprehensive theoretical framework (Chen, 2003;

Osipow, 1983; Zunker, 2002). Nonetheless, each theory identified also has distinguishing

features.

Method for Exploring CD Definitions

A review of literature, analysis, and synthesis was utilized to answer the research questions

forwarded in the current study. Electronic databases were used in the literature search aimed at

identifying a maximum number of CD definitions. Databases accessed included ABI Inform,

ERIC, and PsychInfo. Electronic journals were accessed through Interscience/Wiley, Catchword,

JSTOR, and ScienceDirect. In an effort to focus our search, articles were only selected if

published after 1979. In the case where sources identified cited CD definitions published prior to

1980, original sources were accessed. Searches for books associated with the subject of this

article were utilized using an internal electronic search engine at a major university in the central

United States and online book purchasing catalogs www.amazon.com and

www.powellsbooks.com. Books were considered for use only when a majority of references

were from refereed journals and scholarly works. The initial search was conducted using the

term career development and yielded more than 1,500 sources. In an effort to reduce the number

of sources to only scholarly works, those sources not containing references were eliminated as

were those from nonrefereed articles or books that did not use scholarly references. The

remaining articles and books were reduced to fewer than 400 by searching the text of each

publication to determine whether an explicit definition of CD was provided. The process

identified above yielded 112 resources providing explicit definitions of CD. One limitation of the

current study is that the vast majority of these sources originated from the United States. After

eliminating redundant definitions the search yielded 30 distinct definitions of CD. A small

number of the definitions were found to have modifiers (e.g., organizational CD); such modifiers

are noted in the descriptions listed in Table 2.

It is important to note that we recognize that this exploration can be challenging for the following

reasons: (a) CD literature and HRD-related literature are sometimes difficult to define; (b) given

the relatively long history of CD, providing a comprehensive list of CD definitions and theories

is problematic; (c) HRD-related literature may have CD-related implications without explicit

acknowledgment; and (d) as presented by Lee (2001), there may be resistance to the notion of

defining HRD or its domains all together.

Although CD literature and some literature in psychology and management may explore related

issues, few explore theory building explicitly. Our desire is to explore CD definitions and

stimulate integration and innovation within HRD theory-building literature and within other

HRD and AHRD journals.

Career Development Definitions and Dependent Variables

The definitions of CD are featured in Table 2. Authors, year published, and DVs were identified

and reviewed by CD experts. Then, the DVs were analyzed for themes and categorized by

outcomes as described in the next section.

DV Categories

Although CD is primarily focused on the individual and HRD tends toward a focus on larger

human systems, it is less clear, and at best understated, whether HRD and CD share similar aims.

Theory and theory building are commonly utilized to describe and generalize about a

phenomenon (Dubin, 1969). Therefore, theory, in whole or part, is connected to prediction and

"the predictions derived from them [theories] are the grounds on which modern man [or woman]

is increasingly ordering his [or her] relationships with the environing universe" (Dubin, 1969, p.

3). Understanding the intended outcomes of CD may assist in clarifying the descriptive and

predictive connections we often seek between HRD-related activity and outcomes. As a field of

practice, and to work responsibly with organizational stakeholders (Swanson, 1996), HRD

professionals and scholars must have something to say about theoretical and practice-based

results. The starting point for theory building between HRD and CD should be at the point of

mutual interest in the form of shared aims toward outcomes.

All of the definitions above contained a dependent or outcome variable. In several cases, the

definitions included more than one DV. The identification of several DVs within the definitions

presented by some authors suggests the broad views that some CD theorists have regarding the

relevance and potential for multiple impacts of CD theory and practice. Ninety-three DVs were

identified from the 30 definitions featured in Table 2. Table 3, Career Development Dependent

Variable Categories, identifies the DV categories developed from the DVs listed in Table 2. The

contents of Tables 2 and 3 were reviewed by the experts and the authors. Refinements were

made based on the feedback provided.

The individual outcomes listed in Table 3 appear to have close similarities to the trait-factor,

self-concept, and personality theories that, according to Osipow (1983, 1990), are some of the

most enduring theories in CD.

Integrating CD and HRD Perspectives

Although McLagan (1989) defined CD as an area of practice for HRD, the focus on CD in the

HRD literature rarely has gone beyond brief mention. According to Swanson and Holton (2001),

the focus of HRD-related literature coalesced around training and development (T&D) and

organization development (OD) as primary areas of emphasis. Perhaps the reason for the decline,

or ongoing absence, of CD as a focus of HRD has been the perceived hierarchy suggested in the

McLagan definition whereby OD is framed as superordinate to T&D, and CD subordinate to

T&D. As the exploration of DVs has demonstrated, CD can be associated with organization-

level interests and outcomes. CD may occur in many contexts yielding a variety of results.

In addition to being viewed as a relatively minor player in HRD, CD has often been framed

exclusively as a one-on-one relationship between an employee and a manager or HRD

practitioner. Traditional CD texts were often written for professionals in career placement or

professionals working with adults in transition. These early writings may have biased HRD

researchers and practitioners to conceptualize CD through a programmatic or counseling frame.

CD, however, need not occur exclusively in the context of individually oriented activities

(Zunker, 2002). Fundamental activities such as challenging work assignments and increased

responsibility may contribute to CD, as might participation in systemwide HRD efforts. Research

on other HRD-related activities, such as mentoring, identifies CD-related impacts such as

increased job satisfaction, increased career commitment, and higher retention levels (Egan &

Rosser, 2005).

CD has fallen off in importance in HRD because of the failure to ask questions, ascertain

outcomes, and make links between HRD- and CD-related theories, research, and practice. Recent

studies published in HRD journals regarding training results, relationships between training

activities, theory building in HRD, and the integration of learning and work could be more

impactful if they included CD perspectives. Unfortunately, CD theories and concepts are

included infrequently, thus, justifying the question, "Career development-Is it a loadbearing wall

or just window dressing?"

The current study also provides possibilities for connections and integration between theories of

CD and HRD. Trait-factor theories could be included in explorations of employee preferences

and competencies, and HRD practices. Behavioral theories present overlapping assumptions

common to those found in HRD, such as learning theory, and the formulation of practice

approaches. In addition, social systems theories support the examination of external or

environmental factors associated with learning, development, and performance. HRD studies that

include CD perspectives may provide opportunities for integrative research that examine systems

and multilevel dimensions of learning and performance.

CD, HRD, and Multilevel Theory Building

As described above, dependent or outcome variables associated with CD can be categorized into

those that focus on individual outcomes or organizational and societal outcomes. Despite the

different outcomes identified, in general, CD theories have been perceived to maintain a focus on

the individual (Upton, 2006). It has been argued that because of the frequent focus on the

individual, CD perspectives are rarely included in HRD literature (Conlon, 2003). Although

theory building in HRD has grown in recent years (as exemplified by Yang, 2003, and explored

by Torraco, 2004) and has stretched our field to consider new ways of framing HRD research

and practice, most HRD theory building has been conducted and framed at a single level-often

the group or organization level (Swanson & Holton, 2001). Turnbull (2002) stated, "Theory is

not static. It is constantly evolving, and as our organizations change in response to their external

environments, so the theories on which we build our disciplines need to keep pace" (p. 219). The

theoretical frames and the DV categories for CD identified in this article reiterate that CD cannot

be viewed solely as an individual or organizational responsibility. In actuality, CD is a multilevel

phenomenon. This multilevel interchange occurring in practice can be represented in CD theory.

Conversely, new multilevel theory building should guide more effective CD practice.

A link between individual and organizational orientations of CD may be better explored through

multilevel theory building. Klein, Tosi, and Cannella (1999) pointed out that

multilevel theories span the levels of organizational behavior and performance, typically

describing some combination of individuals, corporations, and industries. Multilevel theories

attempt to bridge the micro-macro divide, integrating the micro domain's focus on individuals . .

. with the macro domain's focus on organizations, environment, and strategy, (p. 243)

The current study and the work by Conlon (2003) expose that today's dynamic workplace has not

necessarily been operationalized appropriately by CD theories that focus exclusively at the level

of the individual because the organization does have a rational interest in CD. According to

Klein et al. (1999),

The result [of multilevel theory building] is a deeper, richer portrait of organizational life-one

that acknowledges the influence of the organizational context on individuals' actions and

perceptions and the influence of individuals' actions and perceptions on the organizational

context. . . . Multilevel theories connect the dots, making explicit the links between constructs

previously unlinked within the organizational literature, (p. 243)

Multilevel theory building may very well be the key to bridging predominantly individually

oriented CD theories with HRD theory-building efforts. It may also assist in addressing the

frequent call for convergence of existing CD theories (Chen, 2003; Osipow, 1983; Zunker,

2002).

Although little has been presented in the HRD literature regarding multilevel theory building,

there has been an ongoing discussion regarding systems theory and multilevel approaches in

HRD (Caravan et al., 2004). Systems theory emphasizes interactions between multiple levels

and, in principle, supports the multilevel theory-building concept. A systems approach not only

supports the idea that CD be examined in the context of HRD but also makes the inclusion of CD

essential. By definition, open systems include all units or elements bound within or connected to

that system (Jacobs, 1988). If we are to explore and theorize about HRD at the organizational

systems level, we must include a developmental framework at the individual level that embraces

the existing CD theories and extends HRD theory building to embrace multiple levels. We have

attempted to make a contribution to beginning that process.

There are many options for future research associated with CD in the context of HRD. Future

multilevel theory-building research will have to engage in questions of alignment between issues

at the individual level often connected with CD and HRD at the systems level. A key

consideration for future multilevel theory building in HRD will be within-unit agreement, or

homogeneity within the unit(s) of interest, and disagreement, or heterogeneity, within the unit(s)

of interest (Klein et al., 1999). Within-unit agreement is a necessary component to multilevel

theory building because there should be alignment between a given construct as a unit associated

with, in this case, the individual or CD level and the system or HRD level. Too much variability

or heterogeneity between the levels or units will diminish the likelihood for the development of a

cohesive multilevel theory.

The DV themes identified (Table 3) suggest that there are significant opportunities for

the development of multilevel HRD theories at the individual and organizational level. "Perhaps

the most common form-and a very useful one-is the cross-level model in which higher-level

variables are hypothesized to moderate the relationship between two or more lower-level

variables" (Klein et al., 1999, p. 246). Using the DVs identified in the current study, interactions

between organization- level efforts and employee achievement of

selfsatisfaction, career decisions, career objectives, development of a self-concept, and individual

alignment with organizational needs could be examined. There has been some exploration of

these interactions in HRD-related literature; however, few have led to explicit development of

multilevel theories. Although early work in the development of multilevel theories associated

with HRD is promising, there are many opportunities to expand our understanding of the

intersection between higher and lower level units or variables, such as theories of organizational

leadership examining large system and the individual impact within organizations (Waldman &

Yammarino, 1999).

Osipow ( 1990) suggested the possibilities for convergence between CD theories through an

exploration of interactions between them. The notion of CD theory convergence involves the

combining of key elements of more than one existing theory into a single theory that could

provide more explanatory power or relevance. Krumboltz (1994) utilized the analogy of

differently scaled maps to describe the diversity of approaches between CD theories. Some maps

focus on topography, highways, or even climate at varying levels of detail and emphasis. Osipow

(1990) and Chen (2003) suggested that convergence of existing CD theories could lead to new

theories. Logically extended, such an effort could create theories, as suggested by Krumbotz,

which are the product of more than one scale or level. Exploring such suggestions regarding the

integration of CD theories may be supported using multilevel theory building. Needless to say,

there is much work needed to elaborate on the theory convergence suggested by Osipow and

Chen; however, the general concept appears to be promising for CD and HRD.

Summary

A number of aforementioned HRD scholars have explored HRD-related definitions. We

examined HRD and related definitions available in the HRD literature for the purposes of

clarification and theory building. Nineteen CD theories, 30 CD definitions, 93 DVs, and 10 DV

categories and their associated theories were identified. Connections between HRD and CD and

the potential for theory building approaches were examined.

Exploration of CD has not occurred in the HRD literature with sufficient frequency, specificity,

or clarity. Through general discussions, (e.g., affirmation of the McLagan HR Wheel) many in

the HRD community imply the inclusion of CD in HRD. Despite this, CD is not being addressed

in specific terms that embrace historical literature associated with CD, nor are we examining the

extent to which CD reflects the "alignment of individual careerplanning and

organizational career management processes to achieve an optimal match of individual and

organizational needs" (McLagan, 1989, p. 6).

HRD can be viewed as emerging from multiple pathways and dimensions. Further connections

between CD theory and literature in HRD will enhance HRD research and practice. With its rich

history and theoretical frameworks, CD is important to HRD and deserves more attention in

HRD literature.

Jurnal 2

Career development for skilled migrants in Europe

Edited by Akram Al Ariss, Iris Koall, Mustafa Ozbilgin and Vesa Suutari

Introduction

Within career literature, different metaphors provide a more nuanced view of how career can be

perceived and interpreted in and from different contexts. Career metaphors ([4] Baruch 2004;

[20], [21], [22] Inkson, 2004, 2006, 2007) acknowledge the complexity inherent in career studies

and research, in that different lenses can be used through which career scholars can

explore careers. This paper considers the contemporary metaphors used in career literature

pertaining to career development in an international context in particular. It reviews those

metaphors in the context of an empirical study conducted by the author with a sample of skilled

self-initiated expatriates (SEs) ([34] Suutari and Brewster, 2000). This paper argues that a new

metaphor is required to encompass the overlapping elements influencing career opportunities and

choices; elements concerning the individual him/her-self (competencies, qualifications,

ambition), his/her relationships and roles prioritization at different points of time, work

opportunities and the economic employment situation in a particular country. The metaphor

of career "rivers" to describe the career development of the sample in the study is put forth as a

more succinct description of their experiences.

The aim of this paper is threefold. First, to provide an overview of commonly

used career metaphors used in the context of international career development. The second aim is

to propose a new metaphor, which the author feels better represents the actual careers of SEs.

The final aim of the paper is to consider the implications of the new metaphor on

future career research and practice through the presentation of a framework

of career influences/influencers, underlining the need for more holistic career research and

theorydevelopment.

In the first section of this paper, career metaphors are introduced, with a brief overview of those

considered to be the primary metaphors ([20], [22] Inkson, 2004, 2007). Next,

the career metaphors used in career development in an international context are reviewed,

including career as a "path" (e.g. [8] Cappellen and Janssens, 2005), the

"boundaryless" career ([3] Arthur and Rousseau, 1996), the "protean" career ([18] Hall, 1996)

and career "capital" ([14] DeFillippi and Arthur, 1996). Then, the research approach adopted for

the study is presented, along with the findings of relevance to this paper. Finally, the paper

makes suggestions for further research through a proposed framework

of career influences/influencers, and presents the implications of the study

for career theory development and practice.

Career metaphors

[20], [22] Inkson (2004, 2007) considers nine primary career metaphors in his conceptual

analysis of many of the career metaphors in existence. Each of those nine is outlined briefly in

this section. The first of these is the "legacy metaphor" or "career as inheritance," which [20],

[22] Inkson (2004, 2007) describes as careersinfluenced by "habitus" or the "fields" within which

one has developed and socialized ([6] Bourdieu, 1983). The common "habitus" and "fields" that

individuals may share tend to self-perpetuate, thereby helping to socialize individuals into

specific structures.

The second career metaphor Inkson calls the "craft" metaphor or "career as construction" ([20]

Inkson, 2004), but later ([22] Inkson, 2007) re-names as "actions," where individual agency

in career construction anddevelopment is the focus. The "protean career" ([18] Hall, 1996) is

included under this primary metaphor. The protean career is a career, which the individual

manages and is control of (not the organization). Third is the "season" metaphor or "career as

cycle," which relates career to life cycle and changing priorities over the course of one's life.

Next (fourth) is the "matching" metaphor or "career as fit," which is aligned with [25] Parson's

(1909) and [19] Holland's (1992) work-worker fit aspects of careers as occupations. The fifth

metaphor is the "path" metaphor, or the "career as journey," which is the most

common career metaphor ([20] Inkson, 2004, p. 103). [30] Schein's (1990) career anchors

(occupational self-concept) and [3] Arthur and Rousseau's (1996) boundaryless career concepts

fit under this metaphor umbrella, which focusses on the movement within a career,

organizationally and geographically.

The sixth metaphor Inkson classifies as the "network" metaphor, with careers perceived as

encounters and relationships (social and political). Seventh is the "theater" metaphor,

where careers "can be construed as performances, and career self-management as a performing

art" ([20] Inkson, 2004, p. 111). "Economic" is the eight metaphor, with career viewed as a

"resource" to fulfill organizational goals as in the resource-based view of the firm. Finally, the

ninth metaphor is "narrative" or "career as story," where the individual's telling of

his/her career story/ies is borne in mind and its subjectivity recognized. The research undertaken

and shared in this paper involved a detailed analysis of a collection of career narratives from

SEs. Therefore the narrative metaphor is of underlying relevance in this paper, underlining the

individuality and subjectivity of the respondents in their career development narratives.

[20] Inkson (2004, p. 100) suggests that "Other metaphors may further help us to understand

both generic and individual careers." It is this contribution to facilitating understanding

of careers that prompted the author of this paper to consider the career metaphors most

commonly associated with international careers, particularly with the international career

development of SEs. Given the breadth of primary metaphors and their sub-components as

categorized by [20], [22] Inkson (2004, 2007) and outlined briefly above, space restrictions do

not permit a detailed analysis of each in conjunction with the empirical research sample in this

paper. However, [22] Inkson (2007) himself files international careers under the career "journey"

or "path" metaphor. Other metaphors such as "protean" (under the "actions"

primary career metaphor) and "capital" (under the "resource" primary career metaphor) are also

included in the further analysis due to contemporary publications on these in relation to

international careers.

International careers and career development metaphors

International human resource management literature has traditionally focussed on the

organization-assigned expatriate (e.g. [5] Bonache et al. , 2010), possibly due to the

organization's position in controlling or co-controlling the expatriate's international move and

therefore the organization's/managerialist interest in this dimension. The organization-assigned

expatriate moves for a temporary duration, with the support of his/her employing organization, to

a host country. This move is mooted as an international career "path" ([8] Cappellen and

Janssens, 2005; [15] Dickmann and Harris, 2005), where the path may lead in different

directions both within the parent organization and externally.

Within the career "journey" or "path" metaphor, the boundaryless career metaphor ([3] Arthur

and Rousseau, 1996) reflects the changing relationship between individuals and their employers.

The premise behind the boundaryless career is that individuals are now more open to moving

across organization departments, geographies and to external organizations. The

boundaryless career has been a particularly useful concept with regards to international

assignees, where assignees may choose to move inter-organizationally after an international

assignment (e.g. [32] Stahl et al. , 2002).

Recent papers have called for a more inclusive study of career development to include micro-,

meso- and macro-perspectives in order to better explain the career development challenges faced

by non-nationals internationally ([1] Al Ariss, 2010; [2] Al Ariss and Ozbilgin, 2010; [8]

Cappellen and Janssens, 2005). This paper addresses the context within which individual career

development options emerge, thereby including meso- and macro-factors.

In the last decade, an increasing volume of research has been conducted on non-traditional

expatriates. This has been in response to calls for pluralism in international human resource

management and in the international career discipline to include international assignee types

other than the traditional organizationally assigned expatriate ([31] Scullion and Paauwe, 2004;

[7] Brewster and Suutari, 2005; [13] de Cieri et al. , 2007). This paper, in common with recent

research and publications (e.g. [1] Al Ariss, 2010; [9] Cerdin and Le Pargneux, 2010; [27]

Richardson, 2009), posits the importance of research on SEs. They are a burgeoning category of

international assignees, about whom a paucity of information exists, perhaps due to the very

different contexts (national, political) from which they come and move to, thereby rendering

their scrutiny complex and emic ([28] Richardson, 2010, p. 146).

The "protean" career metaphor ("actions" as the primary metaphor category under which [22]

Inkson, 2007 files the "protean" metaphor) has been discussed with regards to SEs (also termed

self-initiated (international) assignees (SAs)) ([11] Crowley-Henry, 2007; [12] Crowley-Henry

and Weir, 2007). The need for SEs to "morph" into different career paths due to macro-, meso-

and micro-conditions that they face at different points in time, suggests the individua l controls

his/her career (micro-context). However, it is stressed that careers do not develop in a vacuum

but under the constraints and/or supports from employers (meso-context) and the formal and

informal labor policies and practices of the host country (macro-context).

The career capital metaphor (classified under Inkson's primary "resource" metaphor) developed

from [14] DeFillippi and Arthur (1996). They break career capital into three components:

knowing why, knowing how and knowing whom. "Knowing why" relates to the individual's

values and motivations; "knowing how" to the individual's skills and competences in the job; and

"knowing whom" to the contacts an individual has which aid his/her career development. In the

international career context, research has shown how an international work experience impacts

on an individual's career capital ([15] Dickmann and Harris, 2005; [16] Dickmann and Doherty,

2008; [23] Jokinen et al. , 2008). "Knowing why" findings show that an international assignment

"markedly influenced their [assigned expatriates and self-initiated expatriates] self-awareness on

personal values, work interests and capabilities" ([23] Jokinen et al. , 2008, p. 989). "Knowing

how" is improved as "individuals found new insights and preferences during their international

stays" ([16] Dickmann and Doherty, 2008, p. 155). While "knowing whom" was found to be the

most important component of career capital to international assignees, with one "key finding [...]

that most expatriate interviewees realized that their social capital had suffered as a result of

working abroad" ([15] Dickmann and Harris, 2005, p. 404).

This section has introduced the primary career metaphors and discussed those career metaphors

most applicable in the context of to international careers (expatriates and SA/SEs). The next

section introduces the research approach.

Research approach

The research shared in this paper was conducted in the region of Sophia Antipolis (Science and

Technology Park in the south of France), where 37 SEs were interviewed between mid-2002 and

mid-2005. Focussing on a particular region in the south of France renders the study a

geographical case. A limitation of all case studies ([33] Stake, 1994) is in the ability to generalize

the findings to other locations. However, the aim of the research in this instance was to uncover

the patterns of influences impacting upon the career development of the sample as interpreted by

the SEs themselves in their narratives in the context of existing career development metaphors.

Through their narratives, the respondents were able to consider, reflect upon and attempt to make

sense of the career patterns in their lives ([10] Chase, 2005). The macro-, meso- and micro-

factors (including the organizational, cultural, social, family), which impact upon the career

development of the sample is captured in narrative inquiry.

The interviews were informal and exploratory in nature; however, an interview guide was used

to ensure a degree of consistency across all interviews. Themes covered in the interview included

eliciting narratives from the interviewees on their perceived career prior to their international

move, career influences/influencers, plans; and then moving to how their careers unfolded in the

host country, a reconstruction of their careers as SEs. The interviews lasted between one and two

hours, were tape recorded and transcribed in full. On analysis of the interviews, patterns emerged

from the material, which de-constructed the career developmentobstacles and options

experienced by the SEs. QSR NVivo was used in coding and analyzing the qualitative interview

transcripts, where concepts were coded narrowly and then re-coded more broadly under headings

such as structural obstacles, serendipity, career contacts. The movement from specific cases

(careernarratives) to theory reflects an inductive approach. It is from a detailed analysis of those

transcripts that thecareer development metaphors discussed previously were reviewed and

explored.

The paper concentrates on a sub-category of SEs. Specifically, the sample that was investigated

was non-French, western SEs that had moved to the south of France of their own accord and that

are committed to remaining in the area indefinitely. A non-probability sampling technique was

adopted whereby the author approached SE contacts who then recommended other SEs that also

agreed to partake in the study. A total of 17 males and 20 females were interviewed, of 12

nationalities (western European, American, Australian), and aged between 29 and 62. Each of

them had active professional (paid work-related) careers, with their roles ranging from senior

managers, to IT consultants, to entrepreneurs, to telemarketing operators. They all can be

classified as working in "skilled" jobs. Their marital and family status ranged from single to co-

habiting or married or divorced/widowed; with and without children (of varying ages). The aim

of the study was to uncover general patterns from the sample, the members of which were all

foreign residents in the south of France for a potentially permanent duration.

This section has described the sample, sampling and research approach of the undertaking. The

next section presents the findings, where the career narratives are reviewed against the existing

international career development metaphors.

Findings and implications

The contemporary career development metaphors found in the context of international careers of

"careerpath," "boundaryless career," "protean career" and "career capital" are represented in the

research. This section provides evidence of the relevance of each metaphor for the SEs.

However, the complexity of careeroptions and choices for the SEs is highlighted in the cultural

context and labor market situation specific to the country in question, France. The requirement

evident from contemporary studies in international careers is for a more holistic, all

encompassing framework with which to explore international careers, such as from the

structure/agency perspective ([29] Richardson and Mallon, 2005) and from a micro-, meso- and

macro-perspective ([2] Al Ariss and Ozbilgin, 2010). This author argues that the metaphor of a

river better describes the career development process the SEs in the sample experience, with high

or low starts, different tributaries (opportunities and challenges) flowing in and out of

the career river at different stages; some rivers growing large, while others fading away and

perhaps then following and growing again along a different path. A river includes history (of

origin, of flow, of experience) and context (location, opportunity) in its path/journey, which this

author feels better represents the need in career research to include more elements

in career research (rather than focus on one or two aspects) in order to provide a more holistic

overview of career in action.

The career journey metaphor is evident in the SE's career narratives. Shaun (39, British, married,

two children: 2.5 years, eight months) comments that:

[...] only last week I was on an assessment centre for 3 days [...] and that's part of [a] career

developmentprogramme for me personally, but I'm one of the exceptions. I know not everyone's

being treated like this.

Shaun experiences a traditional, organizational career trajectory, moving vertically up the

hierarchy. He acknowledges he is "one of the exceptions," however. For other SEs, the

boundaryless career is more evident, with inter-organizational opportunities (meso-context)

arising thanks to their international acumen (micro-context). Donal (36, Irish, married, two step-

children) reflects that:

Certainly in the [...] roles I've ended up [...] working with or for [...] multi-cultural people and

doing different things. [...] I [...] keep dealing with [...] people that are all spread over Europe -

whether they're customers, colleagues, or whatever. [...] That's probably one of the reasons I

ended up doing what I'm doing now, because of my experience. Because I had worked with

European wide teams and that was what I was taken on to do here.

Evidence of the boundaryless career concept as a career journey the SEs encounter is present in

the careernarratives of the SEs in this study. However, it is also apparent in their narratives that

macro-conditions have impacted on the boundarylessness opportunities. Hilda (41, German,

married, seven-year-old daughter) notes that "nowadays it's not so easy to find a job."

The boundaryless and organizational career development options are therefore relevant for SEs

but within a wider context as shown above. The river metaphor which conjures up images of

water flowing not only of its own accord, but having to deal with challenges of terrain, external

challenges (such as dams being built or rivers redirected) reflects the more holistic nature

of career. The river metaphor would appear particularly relevant in the international context

where many factors seem beyond the control of the individual, such as employment policies

(macro-context), as experienced by Hilda (41, German, married, seven-year-old daughter):

I studied German to become a German teacher in France because I liked that. And then I realised

that it was not possible as a foreigner to participate to the [...] French official exams and once

you have passed them then you become a teacher at the school or at the university [...] And as a

German at that time I couldn't.

Other research has also noted the career barriers that SEs face in the macro-context ([1] Al Ariss,

2010; [27] Richardson, 2009). Due to the macro-legalities in France at the time, Hilda had to re-

assess her career(knowing why) development, and through contacts (knowing whom), she

morphed (in protean terms) her training into IT in order to proactively target a new multinational

organization she had heard was opening up in the area at the time, that was looking for

international staff in the IT area (knowing how). In keeping with the "protean career" concept,

she managed her own career development at that stage so as to better position herself for job

opportunities in the new multinational organization.

Other respondents noted the prevailing protean or self-managing aspect to career

development within an organizational career (micro-context). Steve (34, British, married) finds

that:

[...] you look after yourself here. It's a bit chaotic to be quite honest with you. You have to look

after yourself.

Those respondents with partners and/or children were further influenced by their significant

others in weighing up potential career progression and continued residency in the area. Billy (52,

Welsh, divorced, three children aged 19, 14 and 11) consciously chose to prioritize his family

over an ambitious external career developmentoption:

I think you have to take a choice at some time in your career: either you want to stay around your

family or you decide to, you want to make a career. My choice was to stay around my family, to

avoid travelling if I could. So that limited my career path.

Individual ambitions therefore need to be considered in light of a more holistic ([36] Wolfe and

Kolb, 1980) picture of career development, which includes micro-, meso- macro-, relational and

structural influences. It is the collage of influencing elements (family, ambition, organizational

support, labor policies, etc.) that determine the way the individual's career could go.

Time was also found to be very relevant in the study. The use of past experiences in building up

potential future career scenarios dependent on the structural conditions in which an individual

finds him/her-self is consciously considered by the respondents. For instance, Rick (43, British,

engaged) notes how his career has morphed from technical to business, and how his past

experiences would serve him well should he be forced to change career due to potential lay-offs

in his current organization:

One of the things I've been priding myself on is being able to pick up a new topic: [...] so you've

got two or three aspects to your job. [...] And so if I'm laid off, or if I was forced to move for one

reason or the other, I would be looking at trying to expand that [other] role out.

The combination of past experiences in developing future career pathways is a central element of

the proteancareer concept. The ability to transform over time depending on the life focus is

apparent in the narratives. The protean career also focusses on the subjective career dimension

rather than on the objective one. Learning new tasks, combining work and personal life, thereby

taking a holistic approach to careers is underlined. Individuals using their past experience in re-

inventing their careers or in progressing more in their careers, correspond with the concept of the

protean career whereby individuals morph their career focus over time, depending on

opportunity and circumstance, in order to survive. The morphing of careers within the

proteancareer concept describes how pieces of one's life's jigsaw of experiences and make-up

contribute to the direction most attractive to the individual at particular points in time and under

context specific circumstances.

This paper has focussed on the findings relating to international career development metaphors

as experienced by the sample in question. There are many opportunities and challenges faced by

the SEs in theircareer development, some of which they have no control over. The process or

evolving nature of an international career, which is influenced by chance, by the individual

(agency), by structural facilitators or limiters, and by the temporal conditions, is underlined. The

notion of taking a simple uni-dimensional approach toward examining international career

development is not practical. A more comprehensive examination ofcareer development, as

represented more aptly, the author here feels, by a river metaphor is warranted.

There is a dearth of empirical research on careers which attempt to encompass a more

comprehensive examination of factors influencing career development ([17] Gunz et al ., 2008,

p. 307). [26] Patton and McMahon (2006) have attempted to address the gap between theory and

practice in developing a systems theory framework of career development, which encompasses

individual, contextual, social and environmental elements with the acknowledgment that these

elements change over time and are subject to chance, etc. This study shows the constant

negotiation between macro-conditions (such as employment opportunity), family conditions (the

preferences of family members) and individual ambitions, which vary over time. The metaphor

of a river would better encompass the meandering, evolving, protean nature of

the careers represented in the study in reality.

Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] is built up inductively from the research conducted.

It presents a framework for more holistic career development studies, breaking down somewhat

the different careerinfluences/influencers.

Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] presents an overview of the career influencers that

emerged from the study. It unpicks different concerns that individuals have when contemplating

their career future. Different aspects impacting on career choice and development were coded

during analysis of the interviewee transcripts. These were then re-coded into broader

themes/influencers, which are presented on the left side of Table I [Figure omitted. See Article

Image.] (primary career influencers), with examples of the different aspects under those themes

on the right-hand side of Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] (dependent on).

The study found that individual and relational aspects impact on career decisions (micro-

context). Equally, the meso-context needs to be considered: concerning the organization(s)

where the individuals are employed and the work/technical job aspects, which the individual

encounters in that workplace. Additionally, societal pressures and cultural norms may insert

barriers or challenges in career progression (such as the expectation for females to support their

partners' careers). Also in the macro-context, legislation and policies existing in the particular

country where the international assignee is based, impact on career choice and opportunity. An

example of this would be the requirement of working visas or residency permits. All of these

factors, in their many varying forms as shown by the examples presented in Table I [Figure

omitted. See Article Image.], affect the individual's career development.

Importantly, these factors are not static, with different factors being prioritized at different life

points, for different people. For instance, one respondent (Susan, 39, British, single), after the

death of her father, reprioritized her career outlook from that which had previously favored

individual progression and advancement to prioritizing her work-life balance:

I'm not particularly interested in [...] rising up a ladder in a corporation [...] I have a very

different attitude now because my father died when I was 25 [...] And so now I tend to really live

my life where [...] money isn't [...] the be all and end all.

The diversity of influencers, varying in priority over time, adds further weight to the

conceptualization ofcareers as rivers, with the potential of moving into different streams,

growing, or subsiding at varying points in an individual's career. This framework is useful as a

guide for further developing career research and theory, particularly in an international context.

The different influencers could be investigated quantitatively with a large sample in order to

ascertain if there are common trends with regards to individual characteristics (age, gender,

relationship status, family status, etc.) and prioritization of career influencers. A longitudinal

qualitative study would also shed light on exploring motivations for career influence

prioritization change over time.

The framework is also of benefit to HRM professionals in the career development practice. It

persuades practitioners to re-consider career development processes in their organizations so that

other influencers besides job, organization and the individual's ability and skills are taken into

account. It highlights that at different periods during an individual's life, different priorities come

to the forefront, which may require differentcareer development options, such as the ability to

take career breaks, reducing working hours or to increase responsibility, depending on the

individual's personal circumstances and opportunities in the organization. The framework

presented in Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] serves as a check-list which HRD

practitioners can use when assessing the development support an organization provides to its

employees, depending on the relative prioritization of the factors at each career

development meeting, recognizing that these prioritizations will change depending on individual

circumstances.

The implication of this study for practice is to highlight the requirement to re-develop HRD

and career development within organizations, particularly for non-national employees that face

even more influencers (as depicted in Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]). It suggests

that more innovative approaches to HRD and career development are required within

organizations; approaches that accept the different influencers impacting on an

individual's career choices from a structure (meso, macro) and agent (micro/individual)

standpoint over time.

Conclusions: limitations and further research opportunities

This paper was limited in its analysis of specific metaphors relating to the career development of

international assignees. Further research could be conducted of a broader scale in order to more

comprehensively encompass each of [20] Inkson's (2004, 2007) nine primary career metaphors

and their sub-components in an analysis of international career development. In that respect, the

analysis shared in this paper could be seen as a preliminary discussion on career metaphors most

pertinent for SEs and other categories of international assignees.

The research collected, coded thematically and inductively from the interview transcripts, and

analyzed thecareer narratives collected from the respondents during in-depth interviews. While

the use of the QSR NVivo software package for coding and analysis facilitated the coding and

recoding of themes into trees and nodes, other researchers may have coded differently, which is

always a consideration in qualitative research undertakings.

This paper suggests a more nuanced metaphor (river) to describe the SEs career development.

The research was conducted in a specific geographical case study location where an

ethnographical approach was adopted and narratives were collected. Despite the specificity of

the research, the author suggests that the more holistic nature of the study contributes to

the development of career theory, which attempts to incorporate multiple aspects which impact

upon career development.

Contemporary career theory notes the "need to tailor psychological contractual conditions to the

specific needs of the individual" ([24] Larsen and Ellehave, 2000, p. 114). This mirrors [35]

Swart and Kinnie (2004) that organizations adopting a uniform, one size fits all approach

to career management is not sufficient. This underlines the requirement for different

individual career alternatives to be discussed in career management sessions (potentially using

elements from Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] for guidance).

While the career metaphors analyzed in this study showed their relevance and existence among

the SEs, the description of careers running along a river that meanders, can run dry, go to sea,

grow wider, deeper or shallower over its course seems a more nuanced description of

the careers this study explored. However, one should not dismiss other metaphors in contributing

new ones. [20] Inkson (2004, p. 98): "Every metaphor has its own strengths and weaknesses, its

applicability and non-applicability to the specific situation. True understanding comes from

considering a range of metaphors." Thus the river metaphor described in this paper should be

considered as one of many different perspectives with which to view careers, but which seems to

aptly describe the sample considered as well as to enable a more holistic incorporation

of career influencers.