LCA : LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS Diabstraksikan oleh: Nunuk L.H., N. Akhmad, E. Sunaryono, dan Soemarno PSL-PDKLP-PPSUB Januari 2013.

LCA : LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

Diabstraksikan oleh: Nunuk L.H., N. Akhmad, E. Sunaryono, dan SoemarnoPSL-PDKLP-PPSUB Januari 2013

LCA merupakan suatu metode analisis lingkungan dan dampak lingkungan yang berhubungan dengan suatu produk, proses, atau jasa; dengan jalan melakukan

inventori input enerji dan material, serta limbahnya yang dibuang ke lingkungan; analisis dampak lingkungan dari input dan limbah, serta interpretasi hasil-hasilnya

untuk digunakan dalam pengambilan keputusan.

Ketersediaan perangkat lunak (software) mempermudah pelaksanaan LCA yang membutuhkan basis data yang besar.

Life Cycle Asessment merupakan satu pendekatan “Cradle to Grave” dimulai dari pengambilan bahan mentah dari lingkungan untuk membuat produk dan berakhir pada pembuangan limbah

ke lingkungan.

Esensi dari Life Cycle Assessment adalah evaluasi dampak teknologi, ekonomi dan lingkungan, yang relevan dengan bahan mentah (material), proses dan/atau produk, sepanjang siklus hidup

mulai dari pembuatannya hingga menjadi limbah.

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE AANALYSISAnalisis Siklus Hidup.

ANALISIS DAUR HIDUP

A life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance, and cradle-to-grave analysis) is a technique to assess

environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life from-cradle-to-grave (i.e., from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and

maintenance, and disposal or recycling).

LCAs can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by:

1. Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases;

2. Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases;3. Interpreting the results to help make a more informed decision.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

GOALS AND PURPOSEThe goal of LCA is to compare the full range of environmental effects assignable to products and services in

order to improve processes, support policy and provide a sound basis for informed decisions.The term life cycle refers to the notion that a fair, holistic assessment requires the assessment of raw-

material production, manufacture, distribution, use and disposal including all intervening transportation steps necessary or caused by the product's existence.

There are two main types of LCA. Attributional LCAs seek to establish the burdens associated with the production and use of a product, or with

a specific service or process, at a point in time (typically the recent past). Consequential LCAs seek to identify the environmental consequences of a decision or a proposed change in a

system under study (oriented to the future), which means that market and economic implications of a decision may have to be taken into account.

Social LCA is a different approach to life cycle thinking intended to assess social implications or potential impacts. Social LCA should be considered as an approach that is complementary to environmental LCA.

The procedures of life cycle assessment (LCA) are part of the ISO 14000 environmental management standards: in ISO 14040:2006 and 14044:2006. (ISO 14044 replaced earlier versions of ISO 14041 to ISO

14043.)

1. Thomas,J.A.G., ed: Energy Analysis, ipc science and technology press & Westview Press, 1977, ISBN 0-902852-60-4 or ISBN 0-89158-813-2

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Empat tahapan UtamaAccording to the ISO 14040[4] and 14044[5] standards, a Life Cycle Assessment is carried out in four distinct

phases as illustrated in the figure shown to the right. The phases are often interdependent in that the results of one phase will inform how other phases are completed.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

4.ISO 14040 (2006): Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Principles and framework, International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneve

5.ISO 14044 (2006): Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Requirements and guidelines, International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneve

INTERPRETASIANALISISINVENTORY

PENDUGAAN DAMPAK

DEFINISI TUJUAN & LINGKUP

Goal and scope

An LCA starts with an explicit statement of the goal and scope of the study, which sets out the context of the study and explains how and to whom the results are to be communicated. This is

a key step and the ISO standards require that the goal and scope of an LCA be clearly defined and consistent with the intended application. The goal and scope document therefore includes

technical details that guide subsequent work:

1. The functional unit, which defines what precisely is being studied and quantifies the service delivered by the product system, providing a reference to which the inputs and outputs can be related. Further, the functional unit is an important basis that enables alternative goods, or services, to be compared and analyzed.[6]

2. The system boundaries;3. Any assumptions and limitations;4. The allocation methods used to partition the environmental load of a process when several

products or functions share the same process; and5. The impact categories chosen.

6. Rebitzer, G. et al. (2004). Life cycle assessment Part 1: Framework, goal and scope definition, inventory analysis,and applications. Environment International. 30(2004), 701-720.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Life cycle inventory

Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to nature for a product system. Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials, and releases

to air, land, and water. To develop the inventory, a flow model of the technical system is constructed using data on inputs and outputs.

The flow model is typically illustrated with a flow chart that includes the activities that are going to be assessed in the relevant supply chain and gives a clear picture of the technical system

boundaries. The input and output data needed for the construction of the model are collected for all activities within the system boundary, including from the supply chain (referred to as

inputs from the techno-sphere).

The data must be related to the functional unit defined in the goal and scope definition. Data can be presented in tables and some interpretations can be made already at this stage. The

results of the inventory is an LCI which provides information about all inputs and outputs in the form of elementary flow to and from the environment from all the unit processes involved in the

study.

7. Steinbach, V. and Wellmer, F. (May 2010). “Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable Mineral and Energy Raw Materials from an Economic Geology Point of View.” Sustainability. 2(5), pgs. 1408-1430. Retrieved from <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1408Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Life cycle inventory

Inventory flows can number in the hundreds depending on the system boundary. For product LCAs at either the generic (i.e., representative

industry averages) or brand-specific level, that data is typically collected through survey questionnaires.

At an industry level, care has to be taken to ensure that questionnaires are completed by a representative sample of producers, leaning

toward neither the best nor the worst, and fully representing any regional differences due to energy use, material sourcing or other

factors. The questionnaires cover the full range of inputs and outputs, typically aiming to account for 99% of the mass of a product, 99% of the energy used in its production and any environmentally sensitive flows, even if

they fall within the 1% level of inputs.7. Steinbach, V. and Wellmer, F. (May 2010). “Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable Mineral and Energy Raw Materials from an

Economic Geology Point of View.” Sustainability. 2(5), pgs. 1408-1430. Retrieved from <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1408Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Life cycle inventory

One area where data access is likely to be difficult is flows from the techno-sphere. The technosphere is more simply defined as the man-made world. Considered by geologists as secondary resources, these resources are in theory 100% recyclable;

however, in a practical sense the primary goal is salvage. [7]

For an LCI, these technosphere products (supply chain products) are those that have been produced by man and unfortunately those completing a questionnaire about a process which uses man-made product as a means to an end will be able to specify

how much of a given input they use. Typically, they will not have access to data concerning inputs and outputs for

previous production processes of the product. The entity undertaking the LCA must then turn to secondary sources if it does not already have that data from its own previous studies. National databases or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner tools, or that can be readily accessed, are the usual sources for that information.

Care must then be taken to ensure that the secondary data source properly reflects regional or national conditions.

7. Steinbach, V. and Wellmer, F. (May 2010). “Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable Mineral and Energy Raw Materials from an Economic Geology Point of View.” Sustainability. 2(5), pgs. 1408-1430. Retrieved from <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1408

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Inventory analysis is followed by impact assessment. This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating the significance of potential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow results. Classical life cycle impact assessment

(LCIA) consists of the following mandatory elements:selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization models;

the classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned to specific impact categories; and

impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized, using one of many possible LCIA methodologies, into common equivalence units that are then summed to provide an overall impact category

total.In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis; this is also the last compulsory stage according to

ISO 14044:2006. However, in addition to the above mandatory LCIA steps, other optional LCIA elements – normalization, grouping, and weighting – may be conducted depending on the goal and scope of the LCA study. In normalization, the results of the impact categories from the study are usually compared with the

total impacts in the region of interest, the U.S. for example. Grouping consists of sorting and possibly ranking the impact categories. During weighting, the different environmental impacts are weighted relative to each

other so that they can then be summed to get a single number for the total environmental impact. ISO 14044:2006 generally advises against weighting, stating that “weighting, shall not be used in LCA studies

intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public”. This advice is often ignored, resulting in comparisons that can reflect a high degree of subjectivity as a result of weighting.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCIA = LIFE-CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Interpretation

Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact assessment. The results from the inventory

analysis and impact assessment are summarized during the interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and recommendations for the study.

According to ISO 14040:2006, the interpretation should include:1. Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an LCA;2. Evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks; and3. Conclusions, limitations and recommendations.

A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of confidence in the final results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and accurate manner. Interpreting the results of an LCA is

not as simple as "3 is better than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best choice"!

Interpreting the results of an LCA starts with understanding the accuracy of the results, and ensuring they meet the goal of the study. This is accomplished by identifying the data elements that contribute significantly

to each impact category, evaluating the sensitivity of these significant data elements, assessing the completeness and consistency of the study, and drawing conclusions and recommendations based on a clear

understanding of how the LCA was conducted and the results were developed.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Reference testMore specifically, the best alternative is the one that the LCA shows to have the least

cradle-to-grave environmental negative impact on land, sea, and air resources.[8]

8. Curran, Mary Ann. "Life Cycle Analysis: Priciples and Practice". Scientific Applications International Corporation. Retrieved 24 October 2011.

Diunduh dari: http://www.toolkit.bc.ca/tool/life-cycle-analysis……. 7/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

LCA estimates the impacts or costs of resources

associated with a project from ‘cradle to grave’ –

including extraction, processing, use, and

disposal. The technique is often

used to compare options for a project, informing a

selection that is less environmentally

damaging.

LCA usesBased on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2006[9] LCA is mostly used to support business strategy

(18%) and R&D (18%), as input to product or process design (15%), in education (13%) and for labeling or product declarations (11%). LCA will be continuously integrated into the built environment as tools such as

the European ENSLIC Building project guidelines for buildings or developed and implemented, which provide practitioners guidance on methods to implement LCI data into the planning and design process. [10]

Major corporations all over the world are either undertaking LCA in house or commissioning studies, while governments support the development of national databases to support LCA. Of particular note is the

growing use of LCA for ISO Type III labels called Environmental Product Declarations, defined as "quantified environmental data for a product with pre-set categories of parameters based on the ISO 14040 series of standards, but not excluding additional environmental information". [11][12] These third-party certified LCA-

based labels provide an increasingly important basis for assessing the relative environmental merits of competing products. Third-party certification plays a major role in today's industry. Independent certification can show a company's dedication to safer and environmental friendlier products to customers and NGOs. [13]

LCA also has major roles in environmental impact assessment, integrated waste management and pollution studies.

9. Cooper, J.S.; Fava, J. (2006). "Life Cycle Assessment Practitioner Survey: Summary of Results". Journal of Industrial Ecology. 10. Malmqvist, T; Glaumann, M; Scarpellini, S; Zabalza, I; Aranda, A (April 2011).

"Life cycle assessment in buildings: The ENSLIC simplified method and guidelines". Energy 36 (4): 1900-1907. Retrieved October 31, 2012. 11. S. Singh, B. R. Bakshi (2009). "Eco-LCA: A Tool for Quantifying the Role of Ecological Resources in LCA". International Symposium on

Sustainable Systems and Technology: 1–6. doi:10.1109/ISSST.2009.5156770. ISBN 978-1-4244-4324-6. 12. EPD_System – www.thegreenstandard.org 13. LCA by Independent Third Parties

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Data analysis

A life cycle analysis is only as valid as its data; therefore, it is crucial that data used for the completion of a life cycle analysis are accurate and current. When comparing different life cycle analyses with one another, it is crucial that equivalent data are available for both products or processes in question. If one product has a

much higher availability of data, it cannot be justly compared to another product which has less detailed data.[14]

There are two basic types of LCA data – unit process data and environmental input-output data (EIO), where the latter is based on national economic input-output data.[15] Unit process data are derived from direct

surveys of companies or plants producing the product of interest, carried out at a unit process level defined by the system boundaries for the study.

Data validity is an ongoing concern for life cycle analyses. Due to globalization and the rapid pace of research and development, new materials and manufacturing methods are continually being introduced to the

market. This makes it both very important and very difficult to use up-to-date information when performing an LCA. If an LCA’s conclusions are to be valid, the data must be recent; however, the data-gathering process takes time. If a product and its related processes have not undergone significant revisions since the last LCA data was collected, data validity is not a problem. However, consumer electronics such as cell phones can be

redesigned as often as every 9 to 12 months,[16] creating a need for ongoing data collection.

14. Scientific Applications International Corporation (May). "Life cycle assessment: principles and practice". p. 88. 15."How Does GREET Work?". Argonne National Laboratory. 2010-09-03. Retrieved 2011-02-28. 16. Choney, Suzanne (24 February 2009). "Planned obsolescence: cell phone models". MSNBC. Retrieved 28 October 2011.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Data analysis

The life cycle considered usually consists of a number of stages including: materials extraction, processing and manufacturing, product use, and product disposal. If the

most environmentally harmful of these stages can be determined, then impact on the environment can be efficiently reduced by focusing on making changes for that

particular phase.

For example, the most energy-intensive life phase of an airplane or car is during use due to fuel consumption. One of the most effective ways to increase fuel efficiency is to decrease vehicle weight, and thus, car and airplane manufacturers can decrease

environmental impact in a significant way by replacing aluminum with lighter materials such as carbon fiber reinforced fibers. The reduction during the use phase should be

more than enough to balance additional raw material or manufacturing cost.

14.Scientific Applications International Corporation (May). "Life cycle assessment: principles and practice". p. 88. 15."How Does GREET Work?". Argonne National Laboratory. 2010-09-03. Retrieved 2011-02-28. 16.Choney, Suzanne (24 February 2009). "Planned obsolescence: cell phone models". MSNBC. Retrieved 28 October 2011.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Economic input–output life cycle assessment

Economic input–output LCA (EIOLCA) involves use of aggregate sector-level data on how much environmental impact can be attributed to each sector of the economy and

how much each sector purchases from other sectors.[24]

Such analysis can account for long chains (for example, building an automobile requires energy, but producing energy requires vehicles, and building those vehicles

requires energy, etc.), which somewhat alleviates the scoping problem of process LCA; however, EIOLCA relies on sector-level averages that may or may not be representative of the specific subset of the sector relevant to a particular product and therefore is not

suitable for evaluating the environmental impacts of products. Additionally the translation of economic quantities into environmental impacts is not validated.[25]

24.Hendrickson, C. T., Lave, L. B., and Matthews, H. S. (2005). Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services: An Input–Output Approach, Resources for the Future Press ISBN 1-933115-24-6.

25.Limitations of the EIO-LCA Method and ModelsDiunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Ecologically based LCA

While a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and strategies as an Eco-LCA, the latter considers a much broader range of ecological impacts. It was designed

to provide a guide to wise management of human activities by understanding the direct and indirect impacts on ecological resources and surrounding ecosystems.

Eco-LCA is developed by Ohio State University Center for resilience, a methodology that quantitatively takes into account regulating and supporting services during the life

cycle of economic goods and products. In this approach services are categorized in four main groups: supporting, regulating provisioning and cultural services.[11]

11. S. Singh, B. R. Bakshi (2009). "Eco-LCA: A Tool for Quantifying the Role of Ecological Resources in LCA". International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technology: 1–6. doi:10.1109/ISSST.2009.5156770. ISBN 978-1-4244-4324-6.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

LCEA = Life cycle energy analysisLife cycle energy analysis (LCEA) is an approach in which all energy inputs to a product are accounted for, not

only direct energy inputs during manufacture, but also all energy inputs needed to produce components, materials and services needed for the manufacturing process.

An earlier term for the approach was energy analysis.With LCEA, the total life cycle energy input is established.

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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Life Cycle Energy Assessment (LCEA) of Building

ConstructionLife Cycle Energy Assessment (LCEA) of

building construction covers a range of the issues relevant to sustainable building

development. LCEA includes the entire life cycle of the product, process or activity, encompassing extracting and processing materials; manufacturing, transportation

and distribution; use, reuse, maintenance; recycling and final disposal. Promoting LCEA

of buildings would arouse attention to environmentally friendly building designs, including energy efficient building design

and selection of materials and construction methods that would incur lower impacts on the global, local and indoor environments, which will also help minimise construction

and demolition waste.

Diunduh dari: http://www.energyland.emsd.gov.hk/en/building/assessment/index.html ……. 7/1/2013

Energy production

It is recognized that much energy is lost in the production of energy commodities themselves, such as nuclear energy, photovoltaic electricity or high-quality petroleum products. Net energy content is the energy

content of the product minus energy input used during extraction and conversion, directly or indirectly. A controversial early result of LCEA claimed that manufacturing solar cells requires more energy than can be

recovered in using the solar cell.

The result was refuted.[26] Another new concept that flows from life cycle assessments is Energy Cannibalism. Energy Cannibalism refers to an effect where rapid growth of an entire energy-intensive industry creates a

need for energy that uses (or cannibalizes) the energy of existing power plants. Thus during rapid growth the industry as a whole produces no energy because new energy is used to fuel the embodied energy of future power plants. Work has been undertaken in the UK to determine the life cycle energy (alongside full LCA)

impacts of a number of renewable technologies.[27][28]

26. David MacKay Sustainable Energy 24 February 2010 p. 41 27. McManus, M (2010). "Life cycle impacts of waste wood biomass heating systems: A case study of three UK based systems". Energy 35 (10):

4064–4070. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.06.014. 28. Allen, S.R., G.P. Hammond, H. Harajli, C.I. Jones, M.C. McManus and A.B. Winnett (2008). Integrated appraisal of micro-generators:

methods and applications. 161. pp. 73–86. doi:10.1680/ener.2008.1+61.2.73

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

ENERGY RECOVERY

If materials are incinerated during the disposal process, the energy released during burning can be harnessed and used for electricity production. This provides a low-

impact energy source, especially when compared with coal and natural gas[29] While incineration produces more greenhouse gas emissions than landfilling, the waste

plants are well-fitted with filters to minimize this negative impact.

A recent study comparing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from landfilling (without energy recovery) against incineration (with energy recovery) found

incineration to be superior in all cases except for when landfill gas is recovered for electricity production.[30]

29. Damgaard, A, et. al. Life-cycle-assessment of the historical development of air pollution control and energy recovery in waste incineration. Waste Management 30 (2010) 1244–1250.

30 Liamsanguan, C., Gheewala, S.H., LCA: A decision support tool for environmental assessment of MSW management systems. Jour. of Environ. Mgmt. 87 (2009) 132–138.

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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Critiques

Life cycle assessment is a powerful tool for analyzing commensurable aspects of quantifiable systems. Not every factor, however, can be reduced to a number and inserted into a model. Rigid system boundaries make

accounting for changes in the system difficult. This is sometimes referred to as the boundary critique to systems thinking.

The accuracy and availability of data can also contribute to inaccuracy. For instance, data from generic processes may be based on averages, unrepresentative sampling, or outdated results. [34]

Additionally, social implications of products are generally lacking in LCAs. Comparative life-cycle analysis is often used to determine a better process or product to use. However, because of aspects like differing

system boundaries, different statistical information, different product uses, etc., these studies can easily be swayed in favor of one product or process over another in one study and the opposite in another study

based on varying parameters and different available data.[35] There are guidelines to help reduce such conflicts in results but the method still provides a lot of room for

the researcher to decide what is important, how the product is typically manufactured, and how it is typically used.

34. Malin, Nadav, Life-cycle assessment for buildings: Seeking the Holy Grail. Building Green, 2010. 35. Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky Life-Cycle Analysis: Uses and Pitfalls. Argonne National Laboratory. Transportation Technology R&D Center 36. National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Special Report No: 04-03. Ncasi.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-14. 37. FPInnovations 2010 A Synthesis of Research on Wood Products and Greenhouse Gas Impacts 2nd Edition page 40. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-

12-14. 38. Bland, W.L. and Bell, M.M. (2007). "A holon approach to agroecology". International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 5 (4): 280–294.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Critiques

An in-depth review of 13 LCA studies of wood and paper products[36] found[37] a lack of consistency in the methods and assumptions used to track carbon during the product life cycle. A wide variety of methods and

assumptions were used, leading to different and potentially contrary conclusions – particularly with regard to carbon sequestration and methane generation in landfills and with carbon accounting during forest growth

and product use.The Agroecology tool "agroecosystem analysis" offers a framework to incorporate incommensurable aspects

of the life cycle of a product (such as social impacts, and soil and water implications). [38]

This tool is specifically useful in the analysis of a product made from agricultural materials such as corn ethanol or soybean biodiesel because it can account for an ecology of contexts interacting and changing

through time. This analysis tool should not be used instead of life-cycle analysis, but rather, in conjunction with life-cycle analysis to produce a well-rounded assessment.

34. Malin, Nadav, Life-cycle assessment for buildings: Seeking the Holy Grail. Building Green, 2010. 35. Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky Life-Cycle Analysis: Uses and Pitfalls. Argonne National Laboratory. Transportation Technology R&D Center 36. National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Special Report No: 04-03. Ncasi.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-14. 37. FPInnovations 2010 A Synthesis of Research on Wood Products and Greenhouse Gas Impacts 2nd Edition page 40. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-

12-14. 38. Bland, W.L. and Bell, M.M. (2007). "A holon approach to agroecology". International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 5 (4): 280–294.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013

LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

Analysis of Environmental, Financial and Social Impacts throughout the Life-cycle of

Products and Processes

• The Concept of Environmental LCA• Methodology of Environmental LCA;

• Goal and Scope• Inventory Analysis• Impact Assessment• Interpretation

• Extending the scope of Environmental LCA;• Economic LCA• Social LCA

LCA

Diunduh dari: http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S1816-79502011000500013&script=sci_arttext……. 7/1/2013

A life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a comprehensive environmental management tool used to investigate the environmental impacts of products, services and activities by taking a 'cradleto-grave' approach. The assessment scope includes the extraction and processing

of raw materials, manufacturing, transportation and distribution, use/reuse/maintenance, recycling and final disposal

• Products do no pollute, but their production, use and disposal do!• Product systems are composed of interrelated

processes

Life Cycle of Product Systems (Source: USEPA, 2006. Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Practice, Cincinnati, Ohio report no. 45268

KONSEP LCA

Some products have a dominating environmental load in production, some in use, some in disposal:

Examples:

books, furniture, art etc.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Production Use Disposal0

102030405060708090

Production Use Disposal0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Production Use Disposal

Examples:

cars, television, airco etc.

Examples:

Ni-Cd batteries, household chemicals, fireworks etc.

KONSEP LCA

• Environmental LCA is the quantitative assessment of environmental impacts of products or processes over their life cycle. LCA is the analysis of the contribution of lifecycle stages,

product parts or processes to environmental burden. LCA is often used to compare between products or design

alternatives.

• Applications of LCA: Product improvement Support for strategic choicesBenchmarking External communication

KONSEP LCA

• LCA is a model of a complex reality!

• …of an average lifecycle of a mass product

• …of the effect of all impacts that occur

• …of their interaction.

• Any model is a simplification of reality: If you make a model, you must specify the goal and scope describing why you want to make the model.

KONSEP LCA

1. Goal and Scope definition2. Inventory Analysis3. Impact Assessment4. Interpretation

- Product developmentand improvement

- Strategic planning

- Public policy making

- Marketing

- Other

Goaland scopedefinition

Inventoryanalysis

Impactassessment

Interpretation

Direct applications:

Life cycle assessment framework

The official LCA framework according to the International Standards: ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006

METODOLOGI LCA

Questions:• What is the intended application of the LCA?• How much effort do you want to invest? • Who are interested parties?• What methodology will you use?

Why is a goal and scope definition important?– guidance in data collection phase– communication base for data providers– reference for data quality management. – afterwards, to explain how choices have been made during

the various LCA phases.

METODOLOGI LCA

• Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and procedural aspects Functional unit: comparison of products on the basis of equivalent

function, for example: comparison of 2 packaging systems for 1000 litres of milk by (a) 1000 disposable cartons or (b) 100 reusable bottles; instead of comparison of 1 carton and 1 bottle.

Functional unit is basis for comparison

=?

“Compare environmental impacts of packaging of

1000 litres milk in carton packages or glass bottles”

METODOLOGI LCA

Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and procedural aspects

1. System boundaries: definition of processes that are included in the investigation, e.g. material extraction, processing and transport; energy production; disposal processes. Production of capital goods (equipment used for production and transportation) are often excluded from the system. System boundaries are further defined during the inventory process.

2. Procedural aspects: organizational arrangements such as a critical review to guarantee consistency, scientific validity, transparency of the final report and how various stakeholders will be involved in the process (LCA is a participatory process)

METODOLOGI LCA

1. Also referred to as Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) phase 2. Compiling and quantifying of inputs and outputs3. Collecting of data, determination of total emissions and

resource use4. Detailed defining of product system and economy-

environment boundary. Only data collection for processes that are controlled by human beings (economic processes). Examples: coal mining, electricity production, controlled dumping of solid waste etc.

5. Visualizing connected processes in product system6. Scaling of available technical data (e.g. from data libraries)

to functional unit 7. Aggregating the inputs and outputs in Inventory Table

METODOLOGI LCA: INVENTORY

Example of Product system and Inventory Table

electricity

steel

plastic

production distribution use dump

incineration

reuse

recycling

LCI table with environmental interventions

Crude oil from earth

40000 kg

CO2 to air 3500

SO2 to air 20 kg

NOx to air 100 kg

Cd to water 5 g

PAH to water 8 kg

Etc. …….

METODOLOGI LCA:Inventory

Difficulties:• Data availability and quality

Data rarely available, usually special data gathering studies needed

Measurement procedures rarely standardized• Geographic variations

quality of raw materials/energy sources production methods relevant environmental impacts

• Technology Which type of electricity production? Salt Electrolysis with Mercury or Membrane process? Oldest, average or modern Waste Incineration Plant?

METODOLOGI LCA:Inventory

Difficulties:• Allocation of environmental interventions in case of multiple output processes;

Many processes are ‘multifunctional’ (e.g. co-production, combined waste treatment.) and interventions can be allocated to more outputs:

• Recycling and reuse• Allocation determined by number of reuse times and fraction of materials that

can be recycled at a certain quality

Electricity production

Salt electrolysisPlastic

productionPaint

production

Chlorine

Caustic Soda

Plastic bag use

Recycling

Old plastic

METODOLOGI LCA:Inventory

• Also referred to as Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)• Linkage (long) list of LCI results to environmental impacts, like climate change,

acidification, eco-toxic impacts etc.

Land useLand use

LCI result

Raw materialsLand use

CO2VOS

P SO2NOxCFC

CdPAHDDT

Climate changeClimate change

AcidificationAcidification

EcotoxicityEcotoxicity

DepletionDepletion

EutrophicationEutrophication

HumantoxicityHumantoxicity

METODOLOGI LCA:Pendugaan Dampak

• Steps: Characterization, Classification and Normalization: Determine which LCI results contribute to which impact category, e.g. CO2 and CH4 to

climate change Multiply environmental interventions (resources, emissions etc.) from LCI with a

characterisation factor to get indicator results Normalize to understand the relative magnitude of the indicator results and to get

dimensionless score (useful for comparison)

Impact category

Char. Factor (Global Warming Potential)

Cat. Indicator result (kg CO2 equivalent)

METODOLOGI LCA:Pendugaan Dampak

EffectIntervention Damage CO2

PSO2NOx

DDTDust

VOC

Cd

PAHCFC

Heavy metals

Greenhouse effect

Acidification

Pesticides

EutrophicationDamage to Eco-systems

Damage to human health

IndicatorWinter smog

Summer smog

Carconogenics

Ozone layer depl.

Category indicators are quantifiable representations of impact categories (ISO) and are defined according standards, such as CML-IA, Eco indicator 99, Impact

2002+ etc.)

METODOLOGI LCA:Pendugaan Dampak

• A ‘high’ contribution to a certain impact category (a high normalized score) does not automatically mean an ‘important’ contribution weighing of results is needed

• Weighing is a valuation of results and thus a normative process, depending on preferences of researcher; which environmental impact is most important?

• Procedure of LCIA according to ISO:- Classification and characterisation are an obligatory step.- Normalisation is an optional step.- Weighing is only permitted for internal decision making, and not for

comparison of products to the public.

METODOLOGI LCA:Pendugaan Dampak

Procedure of LCIA according to ISO 14042. The ISO 14042 standards have recently been replaced by the ISO 14044:2006 standards, but requirements

and technical content have remained the same (see also http://www.iso.org/iso/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1019)

• “Phase of life cycle assessment in which the findings of either the inventory analysis or the impact assessment, or both, are combined consistent with the defined goal and scope in order to reach conclusions and recommendations” (ISO)

• To interpret an LCA, you must check the goal and scope: Are the the general assumptions reasonable? Is the functional unit well chosen? Are ISO standards applied? Has a peer review been conducted?

METODOLOGI LCA:Interpretasi

• Conduct a sensitivity analysis: analyze the impact of important choices or assumptions What if other allocations are applied.What if other boundaries are applied.What if other impact assessment method is

used.

• By recalculating the LCA with other assumptions, we can verify how the conclusions connect with the assumptions.

METODOLOGI LCA:Interpretasi

1. LCA is often associated with environmental impacts, but scope can be extended to include economic and social impacts.

2. Financial LCA = Life Cycle Costing (LCC);Analysis of life cycle costs

3. Social LCASocial impacts throughout life cycle of

products and processes

LCA diperluas:

• What are the costs and revenues incured during the life cycle of a product or process?• R&D• Production• Marketing• Sales• Etc.

• Sometimes external costs included as well (costs that are ‘imposed’ on society or the environment): • Monetary valuation of environmental LCI and LCIA

results…but is it possible to monetise all environmental services?

LCA diperluas:

• Social LCA analyses social impacts, such as employment and health: Job quality Quality physical health Quality social health Earthly possessions

• Challenging to model social life cycle impacts, because social conditions do change more rapidly impacts from changes in employment conditions may dissipate emotions resulting from changes disappear with time diseases get cured people who are laid off may find new jobs)

LCA diperluas: